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t^^T n SI. I '(.i'<t

HARVARD COLLEGE
LIBRARY

ClFTOOf THE"

GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF EDUCATION

■^fflTN

^ I

3 2044 081 491 839

A MODERN
ENGLISH GRAMMAR

REVISED

WITH PRACTICAL EXERCISES

HUBER GRAY BUEHLER

HEADMASTER OF THE BOTCHEISS SCHOOL; AUTHOR OF
"practical exercises in ENGLISH"

NEW YORK

NEWSON AND COMPANY

Eot^.c^"Tl^''.l'^- '^'^f'

h^r

v'M'H C

h'.

< \ '.

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Hov.

Copyrightp 1900, by Hxtber Gbat Buehlks
All rights reserved

1660-6

PREFACE

When "A Modem English Grammar" was pubKshed
in 1900 as "an attempt to present the subject in a man-
ner prescribed by modem methods of instruction/*
approximately one-third of the book was given to a
discussion of sentences and their structure, and the
remaining two-thirds to an examination of the parts
of speech. This reversal of the customary plan was
then regarded as something of an innovation, but is
now generally accepted as pedagogically correct.

The larger elements of sentence stmcture are the
foundations of grammar, and they must be learned
thoroughly before the pupil is ready for the study of
separate words. They influence both the classification
and the inflection. of the parts of speech. Therefore,
neither the classification nor the inflection of the parts
of speech can be effectively studied until these are
mastered.

The enthusiastic welcome and wide acceptance of the
book upon its first appearance encouraged the author
to preserve and carefully collate all comments and
criticisms which came to him from the classroom or
elsewhere, and these have served as an index to point
out where the text might be most profitably improved
in the present revision.

While no change in the general plan of the original
book has been fo\md necessary, the improvements of

III

PREFACE

detail have been so numerous and so extensive that the
revised edition may be said to be practically a new book.

The expository sections, which in some instances were
imnecessarily long and abstruse, have been shortened
and simplified wherever it seemed desirable. The
definitions, after painstaking study, have been entirely
rewritten. The nomenclature used, except in a few
instances explained in the footnotes, is that sug-
gested in the " Report of the Joint Committee on
Grammatical Nomenclature," approved and recorn-
mended by the National Educational Association.

The exercises have been entirely worked over, re-
graded, and rearranged, and many new exercises have
been added. Sentences that were too difficult have been
omitted; exercises that were too hard have been changed;
nimierous exercises have been altered in form so as to
give better pedagogical results; and new exercises of a
practical character have been inserted where needed.

Numerous models for oral and written exercises have
been added as a help to both pupil and teacher. The
sections on certain subjects like *'It" and *' There"
expletive, and transitive and intransitive verbs, which
were introduced unnecessarily early, have been post-
poned to later pages. The ambiguity regarding the
relation of infinitives and participles to the parts of
speech has been removed. The treatment of phrases
and clauses has been simplified and expanded. Dis-
puted points have been either eliminated or fortified
by references to accepted authorities. Larger type has
been employed, and a free use made of small type to
distinguish the less important from the more important.

PREFACE

As explained in the preface to the first edition, the
inductive method of presentation is employed to lead
the pupil to observe, compare and classify the grammati-
cal facts for himself.

The fund of knowledge that pupils bring into the
classroom has also determined the limits which the
author has set to his work. Many things often elabo-
rately set forth in text-books may be safely taken for
granted as already known. To explain them is a vio-
lation of the pedagogic maxim, "Teach the pupil what
he does not know." Even the analysis of sentences,
important as it is, has its limits as a means of instruction
and training. In going beyond the general analysis
which brings into relief the logical structure of a complex
sentence we do not help the pupil, but present him with
linguistic riddles that make his native tongue oflFensive
to him.

As to inflections and the uses of the various parts of
speech, these are already known empirically, and the
business of the grammarian is simply to help the pupil
to systematize his knowledge and to avoid common
errors. Distinctions and classifications, if they are too
minute or nimierous, confuse the mind and loosen its
grasp of important things. The author has tried to
make a book that will help teachers to awaken in boys
and girls what is sometimes called the language sense,
and strengthen their grasp of their mother tongue.

The total result is a text-book consistent with itself,
well graded, easy for the pupil, and thoroughly workable
for the teacher. The author hopes and believes that

1 S. 5. Laurie: "Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School."

PREFACE

those who liked the original book will find the revised
book greatly improved; and that those who found
cause for criticism in the first edition will find the cause
removed in the revision.

xl. G. B.
Lakeville, Connecticut,
February, 1914.

CONTENTS

VAOB

Introduction i

PART I

Sentences and their Structure

CBAPTEK

I. Of Sentences in General 15

n. Of Subject and Predicate 21

m. Of Simple Subject and Verb 34

IV. Of Complements of the Verb 45

V. Of Modifiers 57

VI. Of Substantive Phrases and Clauses 90

Vn. Of Independent Elements 99

Vlll. Of Sentences as Simple, Complex, and Compound 106

IX. Of Elliptical Sentences 119

PART n

The Parts of Speech

I. Of the Recognition of the Parts of Speech 125

II. Of Inflection, Derivation, and Compound Words . 162

in. Of Nouns 165

IV. Of Pronoims 195

V. Of Adjectives 244

VI. Of Adverbs 257

VII. Of Verbs 266

Vin. Of Prepositions 337

IX. Of Conjimctions 343

X. Of Interjections 346

List of Verbs 347

INTRODUCTION

1. Language. Everybody has an instinctive
desire to tell his thoughts and feelings to others;
indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social
life. One way of expressing thoughts is to
make motions with the hands or other parts of
the body, as children and deaf and dumb per-
sons do. But the usual and very much better
way is to make with the tongue and adjoining
organs certain combinations of sounds which by
common consent have certain meanings. These
combinations of tongue-sounds, by which people
express their thoughts and feelings, form Lan-
guage (from Latin lingua, "tongue"). Combi-
nations of sounds that stand for single ideas are
called Words. These are in turn combined into
thought groups called Sentences.

Some knowledge of the history of our language
is helpful to the study of it as it is to-day.

2* Why Our Language is Called English. Our

language is called English because it is the lan-
guage that has been spoken for more than fif-
teen hundred years in England, whence it has
been carried to America and other parts of the
world by English colonists.

2 INTRODUCTION

3. The Early Home of English. But the EngUsh
language did not have its beginning in England. It
was carried there in 449 A.D. by people who mi-
grated from the banks of the river Elbe and the
southwest coasts of the Baltic Sea. These people
were from three tribes, called Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes. Of the Jutes who moved to England nearly

MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH.

all trace has been lost. The Angles and the Saxons
drove the original inhabitants — the Britons — into
the mountainous parts of the island, and in course
of time founded the Anglo-Saxon race. They called
their new country " Angleland," or "England";
themselves and their language they called " English."
The wonderful way in which the EngUsh lan-
guage has spread over the world is shown by the

INTRODUCTION

accompanying maps. The preceding map shows
the early home of EngUsh, when it was a mere
dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The
shaded portions of the map below show the region
of the world in which EngUsh is now used.

THE ENGLISH U

How far English has outstripped other languages
may be seen from the following table, which shows
the number of people speaking the principal Euro-
pean languages in 1890:

EngUsh 111,100,000

German 75,200,000

Russian 75,000,000

French 51,200,000

Spanish 42,800,000

Italian '. . 33,400,000

Portuguese 13,000,000

4 INTRODUCTION

4. Old En^ish Different from Modem English.

The language carried to England by the Anglo-
Saxons was so unlike the English of to-day that at
first glance it seems to be quite a different tongue.
Here, for example, is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo-
Saxon, or Old English, with the corresponding
modem English words printed imderneath:

Faeder ure, J>u J>e eart on heofenum
Father our, thou that art in heavens

Si t^in nama gehalgod
Be thy name hallowed

To becume thin rice
Arrive thy kingdom

Geweor)?e )?in willa on eor)?an, swa swa on heofenum
Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heavens

Ume daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg
Our daily loaf give us to-day

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgifaJ> urum gyltendum
And forgive u^ our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors

And ne gelade )?u us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle
And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil

SoJ^lice.
Soothly {Amen),

5. Relation of Old English to Modem English.

Strange-looking as this Old EngUsh is, it is the
same language as that which we use. The differ-

INTRODUCTION S

ence between it and modem English is no more to
be wondered at than the difference between a young
child and the same child when grown to manhood.

6. How Our Language has Grown. When our
language was carried to England, it consisted of
probably not more than two thousand words; now
it contains more than two hundred thousand — a
much larger number than any other language.
These new words have come into the language in
many interesting ways:

(i) British Words. When the Anglo-Saxons set-
tled in England and drove off the Britons, they
adopted some British words, just as the Americans
have adopted some Indian words. Of these words,
adopted from the Britons, examples are: "dim"
and " down " (meaning " hill ").

6 INTRODUCTION

(2) Latin Words Found in Britain. For several
hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo-
Saxons, England had been in the possession of the
Romans. When the Romans withdrew from the
island in 410 A.D., they left behind a few Latin
words, which were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons.
Examples are: " port " (Latin portus), " mile "
(Latin tnHia passuum, "a thousand paces"), and
" wall " (Latin vallum).

(3) Missionary Words. About the year 600 A.D.
Christianity began to be received by the Saxons
through Romaii missionaries; and with the mis-
sionaries came many new words from the Latin.
Examples are: " monk " (Latin monachus) and
"clerk " (LaXm. dericus).

T DANISH BOAT FOK FOURTEEN PAIRS OF OABS.
78 feet long, lo feet broid. Found in a peat bog in Jutland.

(4) Danish Words. Toward the end of the eighth
century Norsemen or Danes overran parts of Eng-

INTRODUCTION 7

land, and many of their words were adopted by the
English. Examples are: " sky " and " call."

(5) NormanrFrench Words. In 1066 William of
Normandy conquered England in the great move-
ment known as the Norman Invasion. The Nor-
mans, who came from France, spoke Norman-
French, which was for the most part modified Latin.
In England they seized the land and all the political
power, filled all the offices, and made their language
the language of the court, the law, the schools, and
the church. We cannot dwell on the particulars of
the tremendous change in our language which was
wrought by this Norman Invasion. It is enough to
say that after three hundred years of contact with
Norman-French the English language was very
much richer in vocabulary and softer in soimd. Of
the many hundreds of Norman-French words in
our language examples are: " battle," " forest,"
" duke," and " peace."

(6) Words from Latin Books. In the sixteenth
century, through the influence of what is called the
Revival of Learning, the study of Latin became
very popular in England. No one was considered
well educated imless he could read Latin; nearly all
unportant books were written in Latin; and Latin
words began to appear in English conversation and
writing. Since these Latm-English words were
learned from books, they closely resembled in spell-
ing the original Latin words. Examples are : " fact "
(LsLtin factum) J "example" (Latin eocemplum), and
" quiet " (Latin quietus).

S INTRODUCTION

(7) Imported Words. The descendants erf the
Anglo-Saxons have always been great travelers and
traders; and in their traveling and trading they
have collected words from all parts of the world.
Examples are: from Spain, "mosquito"; from
Italy, "piano"; from Holland, "skate"; from
Germany, " zinc"; from Africa, " gorilla"; from the
American Indian, "hammock" and "hominy";
from Arabia, "sofa"; from China, "tea"; from
Portugal, " binnacle"; from Persia, " bazar"; from
Australia, " kangaroo."

(8) New Words for New Things. New dis-
coveries and inventions, as they have occurred, have
given new words to our language. Examples are:
"photograph " and " telephone."

7. Proportion of Foreign Words in Modem
English. The proportion of words in modem Eng-
lish which have been drawn from the sources just
described may be roughly represented as follows:

Old English Words

Latin Words
(including Norman-French)

Greek Words

Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Hebrew, Arabic,
Persian, American Indian, etc.

8. Changes in Otir Language. Our language has
not only grown; it has changed. Old English was
what is called a highly inflected language. An

INTRODUCnON 9

inflected language is one that joins words together in
sentences by means of " inflections " or changes in
the words themselves. For example, in Old English
oxan meant " oxen," oxena meant " of oxen," oxum
meant " with oxen." Accordingly, instead of saying
as we do " tongues of oxen," our Anglo-Saxon
ancestors said " tungan oxena." Traces of these
word-changes or inflections still remain in our
language: as, " sing," " sing5."

9. How Changes Came About- The greatest
changes in oiu" language occiured between 11 00 and
1503 A.D., that is to say, during the four centuries
that followed the Norman Conquest. The story of
the changes is too long to be told here; but some idea
of how they came about may be gained by noticing
what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only
half learned English tries to speak it. He mispro-
noimces the words and neglects the inflections. In
somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons
and the Norman-French became one people, and
their languages were fused into modem English,
sounds were modified and inflections were dropped.

10. Langtiage Still Subject to Change. Since
the invention of printing, changes in English have
not been numerous; for the vast number of printed
books and papers, and the immense spread of the
ability to read and write, have given to our language
a stability of form which it could not have so long
as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For example,

INTRODUCTION

the language of the English Bible, which is sixteenth-
century English, differs comparatively httle from the
English of to-day. But some change is still going on,

PKitrriNa FBESS.

for modifying influences are always at work. English-
speaking people in different parts of the world do
not talk exactly alike; new words are coming in;
old words are dropping out; the forms and uses of
other words are changing. An example of this mod-
em change is found in the word " whom." The
" m " in this word is an inflection; and we still say,
when we wish to speak grammatically, " Whom did
you see?" But since the " m " is not necessary to
the meaning, people have long been careless about
using it, and even good speakers often say, " Who
did you see?'"

> r. R, Loamlmry! "Hbloty ol Ibe Eaglish Lancnacc."

INTRODUCTION ir

11. Good English. Good English is the English
used by the best speakers and writers; and the use
of such English is " only a phase of good manners."
Bad EngUsh, that is, EngUsh unlike that which is
used by well-informed and careful writers, produces
in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression
of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which we
get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It is
with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons
who wish to be classed as cultivated people must
not only dress and act like cultivated people; they
must also speak and write like them. A help toward
this end is the study of grammar.

12. Grammar. Grammar is an account of the
relations which words bear to one another when they
are ptU together in sentences. An imderstanding of
these relations requires some knowledge of the
nature, the forms, and the history of words, but
only so far as these bear on the uses of words in
sentences. The proper starting point of English
grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words
considered by themselves belongs to the dictionary.

13. Uses of Grammar. It is not by grammar,,
however, that we learn to speak or write. Speak-
ing and writing our mother tongue are habits,
formed by imitation long before we acquire that
knowledge which is the subject-matter of grammar.
The object of the study of grammar is to, learn the uses
of words in sentences, so that we may test the habits

^2 INTRODUCTION

of speech which we have aheady acquired, and make
them conform to the best models. Incidentally the
study of grammar affords invaluable mental training.

14. Grammars Old and New. Among English-
speaJdng peoples grammar was first studied as a
step toward the learning of Latin, and the first
EngUsh grammar was called an " Introduction to
Lily's Latin Grammar." The author of that first
English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather
than on EngUsh, and making his work conform to
Latin models, treated English as if it were in all
important respects like Latin and Greek, with no
history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact,
English differs greatly from other languages. In
structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the
mistake of the first EngUsh grammar was foUowed
by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years.
Now we have learned better, and study our language
with reference to its own nature and history.

PART I

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

' , I ' "-•

CHAPTER I

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL

15. Ideas. The word "dog," when heard or
seen, instantly creates in the mind a mental picture
of a well-known animal. This mental picture is
called an Idea.

The idea may be made more definite by the
addition of other words: as, "The big dog in Mr.
Smith's yard" ; but though the idea now has several
parts, it still remains a single mental picture, ex-
pressed by a group of related words.

16. Thoughts. The words " The big dog in Mr.
Smith's yard" are satisfactory as an expression of a
mental picture or idea; but as a statement they are
incomplete, for we at once find ourselves asking,
"Well, what about that dog?" We are satisfied
when we hear that " The big dog in Mr. Smith's
yard barked ^

From the last group of words we get more than a
single idea. We get, first, the idea of a certain dog,
and, secondly, we get an idea of what the dog did.
Of these ideas, the second is an assertion about the
first.

Two ideas of this kind — something thought of
and an assertion about it — together form a complete
Thought.

i6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

17. Sentences. A group of words expressing a
complete thought is called a Sentence.

"The big dog barking in the yard" is not a sen-
tence, for it contains no assertion, and therefore it
does not express a complete thought. "Barking"
does not assert. It is merely a descriptive word,
like "big,'' helping to fill out the mental pictiire of
a certain dog, about which as yet no assertion has been
made. "Big" shows the size of the dog, "barking"
shows his occupation, "in the yard" shows his where-
abouts ; what the big dog barking in the yard did, we
have yet to learn. The thought and the sentence
become complete if we add an assertion: as, "The
big dog barking in the ysivd frightened me''; or if we
connect "dog" and "barking" by an asserting word
like "is": as, "The big dog is barking in the yard."

Definition. A sentence is a group of words ex-
pressing a complete thought.

Exercise 1

I. Tell which of the following groups of words are
Sentences. Make Sentences with the other groups by
adding appropriate asserting words:

i^ The man in the moon.

Model for Oral Exercise. "The man in the moon"
is not a sentence because it does not express a complete
thought. "The man in the moon has a broad face*^ is a
sentence, the thought being completed by the assertion
"has a broad face."

Model for Written Exerctse. Not a sentence. "The
man in the moon has a broad face."

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 17

^. The man in the moon came down too soon.

3. The boy in blue.

4. The boy reciting his lesson.

5. The boy in blue reciting his lesson.

6. The boy reciting his lesson is my brother.

7. His attempt to catch the ball.

8. A primrose by the river's brim.

9. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

10. The children pla3dng in the street.

11. Vessels carrying coal.

12. The apples hanging on the tree.

13. Wotmds made by words are hard to heal.

14. Charles, seeing a crowd in the street.

15. The girl at the spring, having filled her pitcher.

16. To play football well.

Exercise 2

1. Write five groups of related words y not Sentences ^
about things in the schoolrooniy and show that they
are not Sentences.

2. Write five Sentences about things in the school-
roomy and show that they are Sentences.

18. Sentences Classified. Examine the sentences
in the following conversation:

Donald: I found these big apples in grandfather's barn.
Dorothy: Show us where you got them.
Jack: Are there any more there?
Helen: Aren't they beauties!

You observe that Donald's thought is an asser-
tion or statement; Dorothy's thought is a command
or entreaty; Jack's thought is a question; Helen's

i8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

thought seems at first glance to be a question about
the beauty of the apples; but this cannot be, since
she already knows that the apples are beauties.

She is merely expressing her strong feeling of delight
by an exclamationj which has the form of a question.

Sentences that assert or declare are called Declara-
tive Sentences.

Sentences that ask questions are called Inter-i
rogative Sentences.

Sentences that command or entreat are commonly
called Imperative Sentences.^

When declarative, interrogative, and imperative
sentences are used as exclamations expressing strong
feelingy they are called Exclamatory Sentences.

Sentences not exclamatory are called Non-Exclamatory.

All sentences are either Affirmative or Negative: as,
(Affirmative declarative) "She sings"; (Negative declarative)
"She does not sing"; (Affirmative interrogative) "Does she
sing?" (Negative interrogative) "Why doesn't she sing?"

Exercise 3

Classify each Sentence in the following selections:

1. We all do fade as a leaf.

2. Fear God. Honor the king.

3. The king is dead! Long live the king!

4. A living dog is better than a dead lion.

5. Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not
be burned?

*The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends
that the term Imperative Sentences be dropped, and that such sentences
be included in Declarative or Interrogative as the case may be.

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 19

6. a. Half a league, half a league.

Half a league onward,
All in the valley of death
Rode the Six Hundred.

b. "Forward the Light Brigade!

c. Charge for the gims!" he said.

d. Lito the valley of death

Rode the Six Hundred.

*****

e. When can their glory fade I

f. O the wild charge tiiey madel

g. All the world wondered.

h. Honor the charge they madel

i. Honor the Light Brigade,

Noble Six Hundredl

19. Punctuation of Complete Sentences. In

writing, the first word of every sentence begins with
a capital letter.

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence
is marked by a period (.). The end of an inter-
rogative sentence is marked by an interrogation
point (?). But if the sentence is exclamatory be-
cause of the strong feeling it expresses, an eoo-
clamation point (I) is used instead of the period or
the interrogation point.

Exercise 4

I. Write two Declarative sentences about noted men.
2. Write an Interrogative sentence about a person you
know. 3. Write an Imperative sentence about some-
thing in the schoolroom. 4. Write an Exclamatory
sentence abotU the weather.

20 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

20. Declarative Sentences Most Common. Most
sentences are declarative.

Interrogative and imperative sentences are like
declarative sentences in fimdamental structure, the
difference being often only a difference in the order
of words: as, "Can he sing?" "He can sing."

In our study of sentence-structure, we shall speak
chiefly of the declarative sentence, taking it as the
type-form.

CHAPTER II

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

21. Two Necessary Parts to Every Sentence.

Examine the following sentences:

Naming Part Asserting Part

Fire bums.

I cut myself.

The school bell has just nmg.

The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard barked at me.

You observe that each sentence has two parts —
the naming part and an asserting part — and that
both parts are necessary.

22. Subject and Predicate Defined. The part
of a sentence which names that about which some-
thing is asserted is called the Subject.

The asserting part of a sentence is called the
Predicate (Latin, "thing said")-

Definition. The subject of a sentence is the part
which denotes that about which something is
asserted.

Definition. The predicate of a sentence is the
part which makes the assertion.

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

In an interrogative sentence the predicate asks something.

In an imperative sentence the predicate commands, and
the subject is generally omitted, because the subject of a
conmiand is always the person or persons spoken to, and to
name it is unnecessary: as, "Listen [ye]"; "Don't [you]
forget."

Exercise 5

Write a Sentence suggested by each of the following
Subjects:

— . 5. Chalk . 9. I .

1. Flowers

2. Lions —

3. Indians

4. Stars —

6. Farmers ■

7. Chickens

8. Bees

10. He

II. Who

12. My desk

Exercise 6

Write Sentences containing the following Predicates:

1. sing. 6. will be here soon.

2. climb. 7. Can ride a bicycle?

3. spin. 8. Twice was thrown.

4. trot. 9. What large muscles has!

5. grow. 10. will help me?

23. Position of the Subject. The subject does
not always come first. Thus:

Predicate

Up went

Then burst

There was

The last of all the bards was

In the shade of the great elm trees

stands^

Subject

the balloon,
his mighty heart,
a little man.
he.

a weather-beaten
house.

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 23

Sometimes the subject is put between parts of
the predicate like a wedge. In the following sen-
tences, for example, the subjects are printed in italics:

. Is Fred coming?
Where do pineapples grow?
How fast the snow falls!
Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
At the appointed time the gladiators marched into the arena.
Has every pupil in the class brought his books?

When the predicate of a declarative sentence fol-
lows the subject, the sentence is said to be in the
Natural Order. When the predicate precedes the
subject, the sentence is in Inverted Order.

Exercise 7^

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject
and Predicate f and tell the kind of sentence:

I. Down went the Royal George.

Model for Oral Exercise. A declarative sentence.
The subject is "the Royal George/' because it denotes that
about which something is asserted. The predicate is "down
went" (or, "went down") because it is the part which makes
the assertion .

^To the Teacher. At this stage of the work no attention should be
paid to the simple subject and the simple predicate, — a more difficult
step in analysis which should be deferred till the next chapter. In the
exercises in this chapter, attention should be fixed exclusively on the
complete subject and the complete predicate.

"In accordance with sound modem tendencies in teaching, the first
process in grammatical analysis should be to deal with sentences as a
whole, distinguishing subject and predicate^ principal and subordinate
clauseSf etc." — Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen*
cloture, p. 13.

24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Model for Written Exercise.

S. P.

The Royal George went down

' 2. Wise are all His ways.

3. Are your friends coming?

4. That gale I well remember.

5. Doubtful seemed the battle.

6. Of noble race the lady came.

7. Where did you find your book?

8. The way of transgressors is hard.

9. Great is your reward in heaven.

10. The memory of the just is blessed.

11. Up flew the windows all.

12. Our revels now are ended.

13. Overhead I heard a murmur.

14. Wherefore stopp'st thou me?

15. Which way does the wind come?

16. Flashed all their sabers bare.

17. Great is Diana of the Ephesians.

18. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

19. Ten spears he swept within his grasp.

20. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield.

21. Me he restored to mine office.

Ill

22. One new-made mound I saw close by.

23. Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave.

24. There lay the rider distorted and pale.

25. Where are those lights so many and fair?

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE as

26. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this banki

27. Books make up no small part of human happiness.

28. True valor lies between cowardice and rashness.

29. Of his early life few particulars have reached us.

30. About half past one in the afternoon Sir Walter Scott
breathed his last, in the presence of all his children.

31. At the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Gettys-
burg fifty-three thousand old soldiers, both Union and
Confederate, encamped on the battle-field in friendly re-
union.

Exercise 8

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject
and Predicate:

1. At the door, on summer evenings,
Sat the little Hiawatha.

2. On the ear

Drops the light drip of the suspended oar.

3. Her wing shall the eagle flap
O'er the false-hearted.

4. The pavement damp and cold
No smiling courtiers tread.

5. Under the walls of Monterey

At day-break the bugles began to play.

6. Meanwhile, from street and lane, a noisy crowd
Had rolled together, like a summer cloud.

7. The castle's boimd
I wander round.
Amidst the grassy graves.

8. Stormed at with shot and shell
Boldly they rode and well.

Caution* Consider carefully whether "stormed at with shot and
shell " describes the horsemen or the riding. Be on your guard against
mistakes in similar cases.

26 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

9. In the courtyard of the castle, bound with many an
iron band,
Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Kimi-
gunde^s hand.

10. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of
Minas,
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pr6
Lay in a fruitful valley.

Exercise 9

Write two sentences in which the Subjects come
first; two in which the Subjects come last; one in which
the Subject comes between parts of the predicate.

24. Compound Subjects. Very of ten the same pred-
icate is used with two or more connected subjects : as,

Connected Subjects Predicate

Flowers and ferns grow beside the brook.
The present scene^ the future lot^ his
toils, his wants were forgotten.

Two or more connected subjects having the same
predicate form a Compound Subject.

25. Compound Predicates. Very often the same
subject has several connected predicates: as,

Subjects Connected Predicates

States rise and fall.
The King of Hearts called for the tarts and heat the knave

full sore.

Two or more connected predicates having the same
subject form a Compound Predicate.

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 27

26. Compound Subject and Predicate. Some-
times both subject and predicate are compound: as,

Compound Subject Compound Predicate

Spring and summer came and went.

Exercise 10

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from
the Predicates, If a subject or a predicate is compound^
separate it into its parts:

I. She and her brother were there.

Model for Oral ExERasE. The subject is "She and
her brother," — a compound subject consisting of "She" and
"her brother" connected by "and." The predicate is "were
there."

Model for Written ExERasE.

s. p.

She 1

and \ were there,

her brother J

2. Charity suffereth long and is kind.

3. Copper and tin are found in England.

4. The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel.

5. Byron awoke one morning and found himself famous.

6. All day the snow fell, and was piled in great drifts.

7. Moimtain and lake and valley a charming picture make.

8. The house cost only eight hundred dollars but was
very comfortable.

9. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, rush by in
quick succession-

28 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

10. Scepter and crown
Must tumble down.

1 1 . Jack and Jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water.

12. The lion and the unicorn
Were fighting for the crown.

13. The stranger came with iron hand
And from our fathers reft the land.

14. Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep

And dreamt she heard them bleating.

15. Then my heart with pleasure fills
And dances with the daffodils.

16. The foolish and the dead never change their opinions.

17. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of
the eyeball, and there spreads out.

18. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same
stables and were fed at the same time.

19. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunks of
cocoanut palms and thatch the roofs with the leaves.

20. A great Danish fleet came to Scotland, landed its men
in Fife, and threatened to take possession of that province.

21. The formal terraces, heavily moulded balustrades,
and clipped yew trees carried with them an air of proud
aristocracy.

Exercise 11

In the following sentences separate the Subjects
from the Predicates. If a subject or a predicate is
compound^ separate it into its parts:

I. The authors of books talk to us, give us their most
precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours.

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE ag

Model for Written ExERasE:

S. P.

talk to uSy

The authors of books < °^ ,'

pour their souls, etc.

2. The ancient seats of the gentry in England and the larger
farmhouses were fortified against roving bands of robbers.

3. Arms, huge stones, and boiling water were always kept
in readiness for use in repelling plunderers.

4. Of the old baronial keeps many had been shattered by
the cannon of Fairfax and Cromwell, and lay in heaps of ruin.

5. Dragoons were armed with muskets, and were also
provided with bayonets, fitted into the muzzles of their guns.

6. The fine horses of the Life Guards, their rich housings,
their cuirasses, and their buff coats adorned with ribbons,
velvet, and gold lace, made a splendid appearance in St.
James's Park

7. The common law of England knew nothing of courts-
martial, and made no distinction in time of peace between a
soldier and any other subject.

8. A soldier by knocking down his colonel incurred only
the ordinary penalties of assault and battery, and by refus-
ing to obey orders incurred no legal penalty at all.

9. The thxmder.

Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage.
Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now
To bellow through the vast and boundless deep.

10. The mind is its own place, and in itself

Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.

Exercise 12

Write two sentences with Compound Subjects; two
with Compound Predicates; one in which both Sub*
ject and Predicate are Compound,

30 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 13^

(Review)

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from
the Predicates:

1. Here stands the man.

2. Overhead I saw an aeroplane.

3. Whom did the old man ask for?

4. Adown the glen rode armed men.

5. The aged minstrel audience gained.

6. Great and marvelous are Thy works.

7. A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance.

8. The precious morning hours should not be wasted.

9. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of
100,000,000 miles.

10. A little boy with crumbs of bread
Many a hungry sparrow fed.

11. Sweet are the uses of adversity.

12. A dainty plant is the ivy green.

^To the Teacher. Power to distinguish quickly the complete
subject from the predicate, when the order is inverted, is necessary to
the intelligent reading and appreciation of good literature, especially
poetry, which many persons cannot understand and enjoy because they
have never acquired this power. Sentences in the natural order present
little or no difficulty, and therefore afford no mental training. Power
to imder stand is acquired through the study of inverted sentences in
which the distinction between subject and predicate is not obvious,
but requires real effort. The value of the following exercises consists in
their comparative difficulty. If they were easy they would have no
value. Pupils who master them will lay a solid foundation for future
work.

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 31

13. That little book I treasure highly.

14. In my Father's house are many mansions.

15. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.

16. Great writers spend hours in correcting and polishing.

17. Nansen got within two hundred and twenty-seven
miles of the North Pole.

18. The first standing army was formed in the middle of
the fifteenth century.

19. The first astronomical observatory was erected by the
Saracens at Seville, in Spain.

20. From floor to ceiling,

Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms.

Exercise 14

(Re\new)

Separate the Subjects from the Predicates:

1 . What became of your toy steamboat?

2. The cat, prowling round the yard, caught a young
robin.

3. The history of the Anglo-Saxon race is emphatically
the history of progress.

4. On the first day of the battle of Gettysburg the Con-
federates captured several thousand prisoners.

5. Underneath this sable hearse
Lies the subject of all verse.

6. Within a windowed niche of that high wall
Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain.

7. On the British heart were lost
The terrors of the charging host.

8. Full many a gem of purest ray serene
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear.

S2 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

9. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the

Basin of Minas,
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of

Grand-Pr6,
Dwelt on his goodly acres.

10. Far down the beautiful river,

Past the Ohio shore and past the mouth of the Wabash,
Into the golden stream of the broad and swift

Mississippi
Floated a cumbrous boat.

Exercise IS

(For advanced pupils)

Separate the Subjects from the Predicates:

1. Down the street with laughter and shout,
Glad in the freedom of school let out,
Come the boys.

2. Meanwhile, apart, at the head of the hall, the priest

and the herdsman
Sat, conversing together of past and present and future.

3. Down went the Cumberland all a wrack.
With a sudden shudder of death,

And the cannon's breath
For her dying gasp.

4. Serene in the rapturous throng,
Unmoved by the rush of the song.

With eyes unimpassioned and slow,
Among the dead angels, the deathless
Sandalphon stands listening breathless.

5. Hearing his imperial name

Coupled with those words of malice,
Half in anger, half in shame,
Forth the great campaigner came
Slowly from his canvas palace.

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 33

Exercise 16

From Milton's "Paradise Lost"

(For advanced pupils only)
Separate the Subjects from the Predicates:

1. To confirm his words out-flew

Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the tfai^s of
mighty cherubim.

2. Satan, above the rest

In shape and gesture proudly eminent,
Stood like a tower.

3. His face

Deep scars of thimder had intrenched.

4. Him the Almighty Power

Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky.
With hideous ruin and combustion, down
To bottomless perdition.

5. On each hand the flames

Driven backward slope their pointing spires.

6. The imperial ensign, full high advanced,
Shone like a meteor streaming to the wind,
With gems and golden luster rich emblazed.

7. Anon out of the earth a fabric huge
Rose like an exhalation, with the sound
Of dulcet symphonies and voices sweet,
Built like a temple.

8. From the arched roof.

Pendent by subtle magic, many a row
Of starry lamps and blazing cressets, fed
With naphtha and asphaltus, yielded light
As from a sky.

CHAPTER III

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERBi

27. Simple Subject and Verb Defined. Compare
the following sentences:

Subject Predicate

Stars twinkle.
The beautiful stars, which are twinkle brightly on frosty
really srnis about a million nights,
miles in diameter and trillions
of miles away,

You observe that one sentence is composed of
tv/o words, the other of many; but the fundamental
structure is the same. Both make assertions about
stars, and in both cases the assertion is that stars
twinkle. But in the second sentence the principal
words, "stars" and "twinkle," are accompanied by-
other words and groups of words.

The principal word in the complete subject of a
sentence is called the Simple Subject.

The asserting word in the predicate of a sentence
is called the Verb.

Definition. The simple subject is the principal
word in the complete subject.

Definition. A verb is a word used to assert.

^To the Teacher. In this chapter only those features of the verb are
treated which are needed for an understanding of the general structure
of sentences.

The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature suggests the
term Subject Substantive^ which may be used instead of Simple Subjecty
if the school authorities desire.

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 35

Other examples are :

Complete Subject Predicate

Low black clouds usually gather before a storm.

Simple Verb.

Subject.

The conditions of war vary from age to age with

Simple Verb.

^^^i^^' the progress of weapons.

A word used to denote something about which
the speaker is thinking is called a Substantive.
The simple subject is always a substantive or a group
of words used substantively.

In condensed form we may say : Sentence = sub-
stantive + predicate.

The term Substantive includes nouns, pronouns, and
certain uses of adjectives, adverbs, and infinitives, which are
treated in Part II: as,

I Noun: Rest is sweet.

Pronoun: He is weary.

Adjective: The weary are at rest.

Adverb: Now is the time to rest.

Infinitive: To rest is sweet.

Gerund: Playing tag is good fun.

Exercise 17

In the following sentences separate the Complete
Subjects from the Predicates, and point out the
Simple Subjects and the Verbs:

I. The ripest fruit falls first.

Model for Oral Exercise. The complete subject is
"The ripest fruit," the simple subject being "fruit." The
predicate is ''falls first/' in which the verb is "falls.*'

$6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Model for Written Exercise:

S. P.

The ripest fruit falls first.

2. The good news arrived yesterday.

3. A soft answer turneth away wrath.

4. A hot fire of coals burned in the grate.

5. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night.

6. The sudden splash frightened the nurse.

7. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.

8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.

9. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowL

10. Waldo, playing on the bank of the brook, tumbled
into the water.

11. The master of the district school
Held at the fire his favorite place.

Exercise 18

Write five sentences in which the Simple Stibject is
diferent from the Complete Subject, and the Verb
from the Predicate.

28. Verbs of Action, Being, and State. Compare
the meanings of the verbs in the following sentences :

1. Birds sing.

2. My lady sleeps.

3. He loves children.

4. There is a flaw in the metal.

You observe that "sing" asserts action; "sleeps"
asserts state or condition; "loves" asserts feeling;
"is" asserts existence or being. It is sometimes said,

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 37

therefore, that a verb is a word that asserts action,
being, or state — feelings being looked on as mental
actions.
Most verbs assert action.

Exercise 19

Write three sentences in which the Verbs assert
Action; one in which the Verb asserts State or Con-
dition; one in which it asserts Existence or Being.

29. The Verb "Be." Compare the predicates in
the following sentences:

The lightning flashed.
Lightning is electricity.

In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate
consists of the verb "flashed," which does two things:
first, it calls up in the mind an idea of sudden bril-
liance; secondly, it asserts this brilliance of the
lightning. In other words, it has both meaning and
assertive power.

In the second sentence, the predicate consists of
two words, "is" and "electricity," each of which is
necessary. "Electricity" is a word of definite
meaningy calling up in the mind an idea necessary to
the predicate; but it has no assertive power. The
assertive part of the predicate is supplied by the verb
"is." But though the verb "is" has this assertive
power, it does not by itself form a complete asser-
tion, but links the word "electricity" to the subject
in such a way as to form a predicate.

38 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Other forms of the same verb are used m the fol-
lowing sentences :

Be ye perfect.

I am well.

Thou art the man.

The windows are open.

The sun was hot.

The nuts were ripe.

These forms of the verb "be" are here instruments
of assertiony used to make predicates with words that
cannot by themselves make assertions. They link
together two diflferent ideas in such a way as to as-
sert one of the other. They often resemble in force
the mathematical symbol of equality or identity,

(( _ yy

^■— •

Exercise 20

Make a list of the forms of the Verb "5e" in the
following sentences:

1. Daniel Webster was an orator.

2. Art thou a stranger in the city?

3. Books axe the legades of genius.

4. London is the capital of England.

5. If he were here I would not hesitate.

6. I am in full sympathy with the movement.

7. The motives attributed to his acts were good.

8. How truly is a kind heart a fountain of gladness!

9. Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the
earth?

10. Be it ever so humble,

There is no place like home.

Dorothy

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 39

Exercise 21

1. Write three sentences in which forms of the Verb
^^Be " are used with assertive power only.

2. Write two sentences in which forms of the Verb
"-Be" are used to denote existence.

30. Verb Phrases. Examine the following pred-
icates :

Subject Predicate

studies, (a)
is studying. (6)
has studied, (c)
has been studying, {d)
will study, {e)
may be studying. (/)
may have been stud)ring. (g)
should have been stud)dng. (A)

Here we have eight different assertions about
Dorothy. All of the assertions refer to a single
action, namely, Dorothy's studying. But the first
assertion is made by one word, the others by two or
more words taken together, either of which is neces-
sary, and each of which is itself a form of a verb.

A group of words used as a single verb is called a
Verb Phrase.

Definition. A verb phrase is a group of words
used as a single verb.

31. Verb Phrases in Interrogative^ Negative, and
Emphatic Sentences. In interrogative and nega-

40 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

live sentences modem usage requires verb phrases.
Compare, for example, the following sentences :

Declarative: She sings.
Interrogative: Does she sing?
Negative: She does not sing.

Sometimes a verb phrase has the force of an
emphatic assertion, imptying that the thing which is
asserted has been doubted. Compare, for example,
the following sentences:

Declarative: She sings.
Emphatic: She does sing.

Exercise 22

In the following sentences separate the Complete
Subjects from the Predicates and point out the Simple
Subjects and the Verb Phrases:

For Models, see Exercise 17.

1. I did tell you.

2. Who will help him?

3. I am reading Ivanhoe.

4. They had had a hard day.

5. John has cut his finger.

6. Father may be in his study.

7. She would have her own way.

8. You might have told me before.

9. Katherine has finished the book.

10. To-morrow I shall have finished it.

11. A large eagle was soaring overhead.

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 41

12. Father has been writing aU morning.

13. The child would play by himself for hours.

14. He might have been doing something useful.

15. Carrie must have been dreaming this morning.

16. You will have paid too dear for the whistle.

17. By to-morrow I shall have had enough of this.

18. This ring may have been worn by a Roman dandy.

19. By this time he should have learned more caution.

20. Swallows were twittering round the eaves of the
general's headquarters

Exercise 23

Change the sentences in Exercise 17 into Negative,
Interrogative, or Emphatic form, and point out the
Verb Phrases which you use in the new sentences.

32. Caution. In such sentences as "The sun is
shining^^ and "The sun is hot,^^ it often seems hard
to decide whether the italicized word, coming after
a form of the verb "be,'^ is or is not a part of the
verb.

A good working test is this: If the predicate of
the sentence expresses action, the word in question
is part of the verb. If the predicate expresses a
condition or qtmlity of the subject, the word in
question is not a part of the verb. For example,
in the following sentences the verbs are printed
in italics:

"The sun is shining^^ (action).
"The sun is hot" (condition).

42 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 24

Tell whether the words printed in italics are to be
viewed as parts of the Verbs:

1. The key is lost.

2. The key was lost by Bridget.

3. Tennyson is dead.

4. He was buried with solemn ceremony in Westminster
Abbey.

5. I shall be studying Latin by that time.

6. I shall be rested by that time.

7. Charlie has hurt his ankle.

8. The ligaments are sprained.

9. They were sprained in the football game last Saturday.

10. We have been happy together.

11. Books are soiled by use.

12. These books are not soiled.

13. The house is deserted,

14. It was deserted by the owners two years after it was
built.

15. The prisoners are guilty,

16. The sun is bright.

17. The stars are shining.

18. Dandelions are blossoming by the road.

19. The baby has been crying.

20. Ralph has been sick.

21. The cry was lotid.

22. The cry was heard by a passer-by.

23. Were you careful?

2^. The troops were exhausted.

2$. They had been marching all night.

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 43

33. Verb Phrases Separated. Compare the fol-
lowing sentences:

The mail has come.
Has the mail come?
The mail has just come.

You observe that the parts of a verb phrase
are often separated by other words. Other exam-
ples are:

Have you not heard?

I do not yet know.

Has the man in the moon been married indeed?

Exercise 25

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from
the Predicates, and point out the Simple Subjects and
the Verb Phrases:

For Models, see Exercise 17.

1. I have not seen him yet.

2. The leaves are slowly changing.

3. He will certainly lose his place.

4. Have you finished your lesson?

5. She will sometimes lose her temper.

6. We are now reading "Tom Brown^s School Days."

7. Did the man in the boat see the thief?

8. May not the coat have been taken by some one else?

9. A general's orders should always be promptly obeyed.

10. He had a few days before been elected captain of
the team.

44 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 26

(Review)

Make lists of the Simple Subjects and the Verbs or
Verb Phrases in the following:

Exercise 7.
Exercise 13.
Exercise 14.
Exercises 15 and i6.

CHAPTER IV

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB

34. Verbs of Complete Predication. Examine
the following sentences:

Subject Predicate

The wind arose.

The lightning flashed.

The thunder rolled.

The rain fell.

In each of these sentences the predicate consists
of a verb which makes a complete assertion.

A verb that by itself can make a complete assertion
and form a complete predicate is called a Verb of
Complete Predication.

35. Verbs of Incomplete Predication. Now let

us try to make assertions with the verbs "are/^
"was/^ "became," "frightened," "built," "have,"
thus:

Subject Verb

These men are

Washington was

Tennyson became

You frightened

The Romans built

Battleships have

SENTENXES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

You see at once that something is wanting.
Though we have in each case put together a subject
and a verb as before, we have not made complete
assertions, for the verbs do not by themselves fonn
complete predicates.

A verb that does not by itself form a complete
predicate is called a Verb of Incomplete Predication.

36. Complements Defined. In order to form a
predicate with a verb of incomplete predication we
must add a completing word: thus,

Subject

Predicate

Verb

are

Complement

These men

soldiers.

Washington

was

president.

• Tennyson

became

poet-laureate.

You

frightened

me.

The Romans

built

ships.

Battleships

have

armor.

A word used with a verb to complete the predicate
is called a Complement (''completing part").

Definition. A verb of complete predication is a
verb that by itself forms a complete predicate.

Definition. A verb of incomplete predication is a
verb that does not by itself form a complete predicate.

Definition. A complement is a word used with a
verb to complete the predicate.

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 47

37. Caution. Complements, which must be added
to make some predicates complete, are to be care-
fully distinguished from words that may be added
to make the meaning more precise.

For example, in the sentence "The rain fell fast,"
the word "fast" is not a complement, for we should
have a complete sentence without it.

38. Subjective Complements. Are all comple-
ments of the same kind? In order to answer, let us
examine some typical sentences, taking first the
following:

Subject Verb Complement

Tabby is a cat.

Tabby looks wise.

I am he.

In these sentences, the complements describe or
explain the subject, and the verbs are linking verbs.

A word used to complete the predicate and at
the same time describe or explain the subject is
called a Subjective Complement.^

Definition. A subjective complement is a word
used to complete the predicate and at the same time
describe or explain the subject.

^To the Teacher. Subjective Complement seems to be the most
acceptable common term to include Predicate Substantives of any kind
and Predicate Adjectives, which have the common property of com-
pleting the predicate and at the same time describing, explaining, or
identifying the subject. As soon, however, as the pupil learns to dis-
tinguish nouns, pronouns, adjectives, infinitives, etc., he should drop
the term Subjective Complement, and use instead Predicate Noun,
Predicate Pronoun, Predicate Adjective, Predicate Infinitive, etc.

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Other examples are :
Subject

Verb

Subjective
Complement

These men

Washington

Roses

His name

are
was
smell
is

soldiers,
president,
sweet.
John.

39. Object Complements. Let us examine, now,
the following sentences :

Subject

Tabby
Birds

Verb

catches
build

Complement

mice,
nests.

In these sentences you observe that the verbs
denote actions which involve two things: (i) the
doer of the action, and (2) the receiver of it or the
thing produced by it.

The doer of the action is named by the subject;
the complement names the receiver of the action or
the thing produced by it.

A verb that denotes an action that passes over
from a doer to a receiver is called a Transitive
Verb (180).

A complement that denotes the receiver of the
action expressed by a verb, or the thing produced
by it, is called the Direct Object of the verb.

Definition. The direct object of a verb is the
word that denotes the receiver of the action, or the
thing produced by it.

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB

Other examples are:
Subject Verb

Object

I see
I cut
Battleships have
The Romans built

you.
myself,
armor,
ships.

Exercise 27^

Receiver of the
action.

Product of the
action.

Complete the following sentences by supplying Com-
plements appropriate to the verbs, and tell whether the
Complements which you supply are Direct Objects or
Subjective Complements:

Model for Written Exercise:

S. V.

D.O. S.C.

Tabby looks

wise.

Tabby catches

mice.

Squirrels crack .

6. Columbus discovered

Grocers sell .

7. Farmers raise .

Lincoln became .

8. The sky is .

Lee was .

9. The air grew .

Charles saw .

10. The room looks .

^To the Teacher. As all teachers of language know, the important
distinction between objects and subjective complements is a stumbling
block to many pupils. Yet the distinction is not difficult, if presented
in the right way. It may help backward pupils to be told that a sub-
jective complement refers to the ^awc person or thing as the subject, while
a direct object refers to a dijferent person or thing, except in such sen-
tences as "I cut myself."

Many mistakes have been caused by the old but very misleading
saying that "An object answers the question 'what?' or 'whom?* placed
after the verb." The weakness of this test may be seen by applying it
to the sentence, "These men are soldiers": thus, "These men are what?"
Answer, "Soldiers." But "soldiers" is not a direct object.

At this stage no attention need be paid to the distinction between

so SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 28

■

I. To each of the following subjects add an appro-
priate predicate consisting of a Verb and a Comple-
ment, and tell whether the Complement is a Direct
Object or a Subjective Complement:

1. Hens . 6. Carpenters .

2. Jewelers . 7. Monkeys .

3. Cats . 8. Clouds .

4. We . 9. Mary .

5. Birds . 10. Soldiers .

2. Write three sentences containing Direct Objects;
two containing Subjective Complements.

Exercise 29

(Review)

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject
and Predicate, point out the Verbs and the Comple-
ments, and tell whether the Complements are Direct
Objects or Subjective Complements.

I. Tom broke a window.

Model for Oral ExERasE. The subject is "Tom."
The predicate is "broke a window." The verb is "broke."
"Window" is a direct object, because it completes the
predicate and denotes the receiver of the action.

predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, which will naturally take care of
itself later. "One thing at a time"; and the one thing at this stage i»
the distinction between objects and subjective complements. Whethe*
the latter are nouns or adjectives makes, at this stage, no difference.

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 51

Model for Written Exercise:

S. V. D.O. S.C.

Tom broke window

2. Chaucer was a poet.

3. Saul was made king.

4. Do you study Latin?

5. Bruno bit the tramp.

6. She turned her back.

7. She looked a goddess.

8. Arnold turned traitor.

9. Who killed Cock Robin?
:o. Who will toll the bell?

1. Some one took my bicycle.

2. The bird forsook her nest.
13. A man's house is his castle.
:4. Righteousness exalteth a nation.

5. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman.

6. Gladstone became prime minister.

7. Demosthenes and Cicero were orators.
:8. None but the brave deserve the fair.
:g^ My father remained secretary for the rest of his life.

20. Sir Samuel Baker was a great hunter and explorer.

21. He killed many lions, tigers and elephants, and in*
numerable smaller animals.

II.

22. Comparisons are odious.

23. To-night no moon I see.

24. Britannia rules the wave.

25. Augustus was made emperor.

52 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

26. The two roads run paralleL

27. We struck the boat amidships.

28. Wisdom hath builded her house.

29. A wise son maketh a glad father.

30. King Alfred was called Truth-teller.

31. Who wrote "The Star-spangled Banner"?

32. He came a foe and returned a friend.

33. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty.

34. The wind was blowing a smacking breeze.

35. Ethel grew tall, beautiful, and queenly.

36. To Lord Byron Venice seemed a sea-goddess.

37. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God.

38. A foolish son is the heaviness of his mother.

39. The dove foimd no rest for the sole of her foot.

40. The kings of Egypt are in the Bible called Pharaohs.

41. Washington was elected the first President of the
United States.

40. Objective Complements. Examine the fol-
lowing groups of words :

Subject Predicate ,

Verb Object

The Hebrews made Saul

This made him

In these groups of words we have subject, verb,
and object; yet we do not have complete sentences.
Additional words are needed, to answer the questions,
"What did the Hebrews make Saul?" and "What

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 53

did this make him?" The lack is supplied in the
following sentences :

Subject , Predicate ,

Verb Direct Second

Object Complement

The Hebrews made Saul king.

This made him vain.

The function or use of the second complements,
*'king" and "vain," will appear if we write the
sentences as follows:

Subject Predicate ,

Verb Object

The Hebrews made-king Saul

(crowned)

This made-vain him.

(spoiled)

From this we see that "king" and "vain" help the
verb "made" to express a certain action, and at the
same time they denote attributes of Saul resulting
.from that action.

A word that completes the predicate and at the
same time describes the direct object is called an
Objective Complement.^

Definition. An objective complement is a word
used to complete the predicate and describe the
direct object.

^The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature
suggests the term Adjunct Accusative, which may be substituted for
Objective Complement, if desired by the school authorities.

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Other examples are:
Subject ^

Verb

We elected

Swinging makes

God struck

The Persian army drank

-Predicate.

Direct
Object

Harry
me

Ananias
the rivers

Objective
Complement

captain,
giddy,
dead,
dry.

Exercise 30

I. Fill the blanks with Objective Complements, and
show that they belong both to the verb and to the object:

1. They named the

boy .

2. The people made

Washington .

3. Henry painted his

house .

4. They called the state ^

5. Let us appoint her .

6. Pride kept her .

7. Why did you choose me ?

8. She swept the room ,

2. Write two sentences containing Objective Com*
plemerUs.

Exercise 31

(Review)

Point out the Simple Subjects, the Verbs, the
Direct Objects, and the Objective Complements:

I. Victoria, the queen of England, made Tennyson a
baron because of her admiration for his poetry.

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB

Model FOR Written Exercise:

Victoria

made

D.O.

Tennyson

O.C.

baron

2. Attention held them mute.

3. She carries her head high.

4. They sang themselves hoarse.

5. We cannot pump the ocean dry.

6. Get the horses ready immediately.

7. Cradles rock us nearer to the tomb.

8. Time makes the worst enemies friends.

9. The carpenter planed the board smooth.

10. One touch of nature makes the whole worid kin.

11. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous.

12. You think him humble, but God accounts him proud.

13. All Napoleon's conquests did not make him happy.

14. Make the memory a storehouse, not a lumber room.

15. Dr. Holmes called Boston the hub of the universe.

16. Cromwell made the poet Milton Secretary of State.

17. Madame de Stael called- architecture frozen music.

18. Whosoever maketh himself a king speaketh against
Caesar.

19. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called
Night.

20. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the
historian, blind for life.

21. King George II appointed Franklin Postmaster-
General of the British Colonies in America.

41. Two or More Complements to One Verb.

Sometimes a single verb has two or more comple-
ments: as,

56 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Subject Verb Complements

We study arithmetic and grammar,

Addison was a gentleman and a scholar.

42. Two or More Verbs with One Complement.

Sometimes a single complement belongs to two or
more verbs : as,

Subject Verbs Complement

Noble minds loathe and despise falsehood.

To the Teacher. Indirect objects, which are modifiers rather than
complements, are treated in the next chapter.

At this stage of the work no attention should be paid to "nouns,"
"pronouns," "adjectives," "adverbs," etc., a more difficult branch of
analysis, which should be deferred until after the pupil has mastered
the larger and fundamental conceptions of subject, verb, complement,
and modifier. The "parts of speech" will be treated in due time in
Part II.

CHAPTER V

OF MODIFIERS

From our previous study it is clear that the essen-
tial parts of language are Subject, Verb, and Com-
plement. They are, as it were, the bones of every
sentence, giving shape to the thought, and holding
it together.

But these essential parts are. seldom used alone.
Generally they are accompanied by expressions that,
without being essential, fill out the thought and
give it definiteness and accuracy, somewhat as
flesh roimds out the human form.

Such, expressions are called Modifiers, and they
consist sometimes of one word, sometimes of many
words used in groups. They are very f reqilent
and important.

43. Modifiers Defined. Many words have mean-
ings so wide that they must be narrowed before they
exactly fit our thought. For example, the word
"horses" appKes to all the horses in the world; but
we seldom wish to speak of all horses. To bring
the meaning of the word down to the measure of
our thought we add to it some word, or words, by
way of limitation or description : thus,

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

boKses.

Black

Big

Fast

Beautiful

Good

Trotting

Our

Your

These

Two

Some

Both

Similaarly ther^ are many varieties of the action
expressed by the verb "went": as,

slowty,

cheeiiuUy.

fast.

there,

before.

again.

«oon.

immediately.

yesterday.

twice.

little.

often.

<■
1

He wen^

Ofttti we use several limiting or describing words:

as,

Y&HT teauUful black trcUing horses*
He efim went there before.

A word used to modify or limit the meaning d
another word is called a Modifier.

OF MODIFIERS

Definition. A modifier is a word used to limit
or modify the meaning of another word.

Modifiers may be used with any or all of the
principal parts of a sentence : as,

Modified
Subject

The

Some

These

Five

Little

Big

Spanish

American

Smith's

Our

boys

Modified
Verb

)resterday

to-day

often

never

there

again

once

seldom

quickly

surely

►found

Modified
Complement

some

many

twelve

big

small

rosy

sweet

sour

ripe

green

apples.

Exercise 32

Use appropriate Modifiers with the following words:

I. —

3- —
4. —

5- —

6. Lie —

7. Run —

8. Think

9. Sit —
10.

oranges.

music.

clouds.

roses.

wind.

II. ^^-

12.

13-

14. Come

15. Go-
ld. Stay-

17. Step -

18. Rise -

houses.

candy.

dogs.

balls.

19, Sleep .

2o» Speak and

6o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 33

1. Mention as many wards as you can that might
be used as Modifiers of each of the following words:

wagon dog leaf coat tree

2. Write ten sentences j using each of the following
words as a Modifier:

to-day that never here slowly

large four not idle well

Exercise 34

Make a list of the words used as Modifiers in
Exercise 8, and opposite each write the word which it
modifies.

44. Caution. Care must be taken not to con-*
found modifiers of the verb with complements.
A modifier shows the time, place, manner or degree
of the action, being, or state expressed by the verb.
A direct object denotes the object on which the action
expressed by the verb falls; a subjective complement
points back to the subject, which it describes or
explains.

Exercise 35

In the following sentences tell whether the italicized
words are Direct Objects^ Subjective Complements^ or
Modifiers of the verb:

1. Father called again.

2. King Alfred was called Truth-teller.

3. The regiment marched /t^//(.

OF MODIFIERS 6x

4. Gehazi went out a leper,

5. She sang a ballad,

6. She sang well,

7. Bismarck was a German,

8. The ship sailed yesterday,

9. The policeman looked ^wr/y.

10. Lot's wife looked back,

11. The deacon's horse ran a race.

12. The deacon's horse ran away,

13. Vesuvius is a volcano,

14. Helen wrote yesterday.

15. She wrote a composition,

16. She writes we//.

17. Mother is sewing late to-night,

18. She is sewing my dress,

19. To-morrow will be Saturday,

20. The man turned his head,

21. The men turned pirates,

22. The man turned round,

23. He walked a mile,

24. He walked his horse,

25. The Romans were great soldiers,

26. Who fought there?

27. Who fought King Richard?

28. Who fought best?

29. The ship struck a r(?c^.

30. The ship struck head-on,

4S. Analysis. When, in order to show its struc-
ture, we separate a sentence into its parts, we are
said to Analyze it (Greek, "to take apart").

to SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Definition. Analysis is the process of sqiaxating
a sentence into its parts in order to show its structure.

In order to analyze a sentence completely we
must tell —

(i) The kind of sentence.

(2) The complete subject.

(3) The predicate.

(4) The simple subject,

(5) The verb.

(6) The complement, if any.

(7) The modifiers of subject, verb, and complement.

(8) The modifiers of modifiers.

46. Diagrams. It is sometimes convenient^ as
a time-saving device, to show the fimdamental
structure of a sentence by means of a graphic rep-
resentation, called a Diagram. For example, the
structure of the sentence,

All boys like the game of baseball,
may be exhibited thus :

S. V. D. O.

boys like game

All]

the

of baseball.

This diagram dhiows at a glance that the ^ntence
has three principal parts, and that the subject has
one modifier, the object two.

OF MCOHIERS ^

Similarly, the structure of tli€ sentence.

The lion and the uniccnn;
Were, fighting for the crcxwn,

may be shown thus:

s. V.

Uon

Thej

and

uicucom.

were fighting

for crown

[the

Groups of words used with the force of single
words are of tea best treated as units and not broken
up into parts. ^

^To the Teacher. The chief value of the diagram is that it enahles
the teacher to test a pupil's insight, tato seotenee^structnire with a
minimiun of time and effort. The chief objection to it is that, being
mechanical, it is unnatural as an exp^'essibn- of logical relations, reducing
the beautiful subtleties of language to hard and fast lines, unresting the
words out of their order, and fostering in the pupil mechanical ideas of
the English sentence.

Used occasionally and in moderation, the diagram is a help; but it
should not attempt to go beyond the graphic separation of subject, verb,
complements, and modifiers; and. it should never be allowed to usurp
the place of oral analysis, which remains the chief instrument of the
teacher for developing quids perception and" easy expresaon.

The author doubts the expediency of ever tattending the use of the
diagram beyond the expression of the fundamental logical structure of
the sentence. To attempt to ^ow grajihically ail ^ammoHcal relations,
leads to niceties of detail in the diagram, which turn it into a puzzle
requiring a key. When a pupil becomes concerned not so much with
the use of a word as with how to express that use graphically, the purpose
of the diagram has become perverted, and the real object of analysis is
lost sight of.

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 36

Analyze the follomng sentences by separating them
into Simple Subjed, Verb, Complements, and
Modifiers:

I. The old horse thrust his long neck out.

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence.
The complete subject is "The old horse." The predicate is
"thrust his long neck out." The complete subject consists
of the simple subject "horse," modified by "old" and "the."
The predicate consists of the verb "thrust," modified by
"out," and the object "neck," modified by "his" and "long."

Model for Written Analysis:

horse

V. O.

thrust neck.

old

out

long

The

his

2. I have not much time.

3. Every dog has his day.

4. Many hands make light work.

5. Little strokes iEell great oaks.

6. An imdevout astronomer is mad.

7. When shall I see you again?

8. The postman comes twice daily.

9. We often meet nowadays.

10. Sometimes we exchange a few words.

11. We seldom converse long.

12. Here he comes.

13. They walked up and down.

OF MODIFIERS 6$

14. Where did you find those apples?

15. I have nearly finished my work.

16. We shall surely expect you to-day.

17. Perhaps your sister will come too.

18. The noblest mind the best contentment has.

19. Why did you come here to-day?

20. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.

21. Meanwhile we did our nightly chores.

22. Where is your hat?

23. This good news arrived yesterday.

24. The first carriage contained four persons.

25. A large black dog carried the basket.

26. The plowman homeward plods his weary way.

27. The cold November rain is falling dismally.

28. To and fro and in and out the wan stars danced
between.

29. Gayly the troubadour

Touched his guitar.

30. The cock his crested helmet bent

And down his querulous challenge sent.

47. Modifjdng Phrases. Compare the modifiers
in the following expressions:

(i) Strong men.

(2) Men of great strength.

(3) Remain there,

(4) Remain in that place.

In (i) the modifier of "men" is a single word,
"strong"; in (2) it is a group of words, "of great
strength," having the force of the single word
"strong."

6S SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

In (3) "remain" is modified by the angle word
"there"; in (4) the group of words "in that place"
is used instead of the single word "there."

Does either of these groups of words used as a
single word ("of great strength," "in that place")
contain a subject and a predicate?

A group of related words used as part of a sentence,
and containing neither subject nor predicate, is
called a Phrase.

If the phrase is used as a modifier, it is called a
Modifjring Pitrase.

Definition. A phrase is a group of related words
containing neither subject nor predicate and used
as part of a sentence.

Definition. A modifying phrase is a phrase used
as a modifier.

Other examples of modifying phrases are:

Phrase.

He stayed at home.
Phrase.

Stunned by the sound, he lay unconscious.
Phrase.

Having finished his work, John went h(»ne.

48. Punctuation. Phrases that might be omitted.

OF MODIFIERS 67

or that interrupt the natural movement of the
sentence, are usually set off by commas. Thus :

(i) Msiry, faithful to her promise, returned soon.

(2) Hearing a shout, she ran to the door.

(3) It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world.

Exercise 37

Narrow the meaning of the following words by
adding to them Modifying Phrases:

1. Clouds . 5, News . 9. Sit .

2. A ride . 6. Wind . 10. Write .

3. A house . 7. He went . 11. The fox ran .

4. Boats . 8. lie walked .12. Ships sail .

Exercise 38

Make a list of the Phrases in the following sentences
and opposite each write the word which it modifies:

1. June is the month of roses.

2. Boys like stories of adventure.

3. The minister lives near the church.

4. He advanced to the council table.

5. The boat was hurled violently a^inst the cliff.

6. The path in the woods was overgrown with weeds.

7. Tlie wisdom of the andents is found in their writings.

8. The town is built on the banks of a stream in the
midst of a fine farming region.

9. The government of the people, for the people, and
by the people, stands imshaken.

10. Here they noticed round his neck
A scarf of red and yellow stripes.

68 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 39

Rewrite the following sentences^ substituting single
words for the Phrases:

1. The banks of the river were steep.

2. We are going away in the morning.

3. The horses belonging to us are lame.

4. They cannot be driven with speed or to a distance.

5. The coachman thinks they will be well in a short time.

6. The boys of England play cricket.

7. A house of brick stood in that place.

8. She was without a penny.

9. We will meet you at some place.

10. That steamer brought a thousand emigrants from
Italy.

Exercise 40

I. Change the following words into equivalent
Phrases J and use the Phrases in sentences of your own
making:

1. Successful. .5. Beautiful. 9. Homeward.

2. Speedy. 6. Instantly. 10. Now.

3. Beneficial. 7. Powerful. 11. Then.

4. American. 8. Here. 12. Carefully.

2. Write five sentences containing Modifying
Phrases.

Exercise 41

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the
Modifying Phrases:

I. We sped the time with stories old.

OF MODIFIERS 69

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence.
The complete subject is "We." The predicate is "sped the
time with stories old," which contains the verb "sped" and
the object "time." The verb "sped" is modified by the phrase
"with stories old." The object "time" is modified by "the."

Model for Written Analysis:

S. V. o.

We sped time

[with stories |the

[old

2. A basket of fruit stood on the table.

3. Mercy is enthroned in the hearts of kings.

4. The borrower is servant to the lender.

5. They pitched their tent on the river bank.

6. I shall go to the city by the first train in the morning.

7. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent
youth.

8. Pins were first made by machinery in New York, in

1835.

9. The author of "The Eve of St. Agnes" was bom in
a stable.

10. The first submarine telegraph was laid in New York
Harbor in 1842.

11. Glass windows were introduced into England in the
eighth century.

12. Icebergs fall into the ocean from Arctic glaciers, and
drift slowly toward the south.

13. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by
twelve thousand electric lamps.

14. General Toral, hemmed in by the American army,
surrendered Santiago to General Shaf ter.*

^ See the examples on page 66.

70 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

15. Flocks of birds, wheeling round the lighthouse and
blinded by the light, dashed themselves to death against
the glass/

16. We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney back.

17. The moon, above the eastern wood,
Shone at its full.

18. Down in the green and shady bed
A modest violet grew.

19. Two robin redbreasts built their nest
Within a hollow tree.

20. Unwarmed by any sunset light
The gray day darkened into night.*

49. Modifjring Clauses. Compare the modifiers
in the following sentences:

(i) She met a girl wUh bltte eyes.

(2) She met a girl whose eyes were blue,

(3) Learn in youth.

(4) Learn while you are young.

In (i) the word "girl" is modified by the phrase
"with blue eyes." In (2) it is modified by the group
of words "whose eyes were blue," which is not a
phrase, because it contains a subject ("whose eyes")
and a predicate ("were blue").

In (3) the word "learn" is modified by the phrase

1 See the examples on page 66.

OF MOD£FI££RS 9X

*^in ycwath"^ in (4) in place <rf the phrase "in yoiidi,/*
we have a group of words contaiim^ a subject
("you") and a predicate ("are young").

A group of words contaiining «. subject acid a
predicate and lased as psxt of a sentence is called m
Clause.

If the clause h used as a modsSer it is called a
lifodSsdxKg Ciffuse«

Definition. A clause is a group of words contain-
ing :a subject and a predicate and used as part of a
sesitence.

DefimUfm, A modifying daxtse is a clause ttsed
as a modifier.

Other ^examples of clauses are :

Modifying Clause Pnndpal Clmse

// U rams^ we camsot ;go.

Princ^l Clause Modif3ri]:)g CUtitse

•

They started when the sun rose.

Subject Clause

Whether he will come is uncertain.

MotKfymg Qaaise Object Clause

He tb^ is giddy thinks the werld turns round.

Phrases and clauses are cUihe in beii^ groups of
related words used as parts of sentences. Th/tyd^er

72 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

in this : a clause contains a subject and a predicate,
a phrase does not.

50. Punctuation of Clauses. Clauses should
usually be set off by commas. Thus:

When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself.
Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, is a
necessity of life.

ExcEFHON. When the clause is very short, or necessary to
the meaning, it is usually not set off by commas. Thus:
"Make hay while the sun shines" ; "The pursuit did not cease
untU the thief was caught"; "Water that is stagnant is im-
wholesome."

Note. The use or omission of the comma is often a matter
of judgment, to be determined by the requirements of clear-
ness. For instance, in the short sentence, "Whatever is, is
right," the comma is used to show that the first "is" must
be taken with what precedes it. In the short sentence, "Just
as I awoke, the clock struck six," the conmia is used to guard
the reader against taking "the dock" as the object of
"awoke." The comma shows that "awoke" ends a clause.

Exercise 42

Narrow the meaning of the following words by
adding to them Modifying ClauseSy and indicate the
subject and the predicate in each Clause:

1. Men . s. Those . 9. The ground is

2. Children . 6. He came . wet .

3. The train . 7. Stay . 10. The brook

4. The book . 8. Make hay . is deep.

OF MODIFIERS 73

Exercise 43

Copy . the Modifying Clatises in the following
sentences^ tell what they modifyj and underline the
subject and the predicate of each Clause:

1. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.

2. A book is a friend whose face never changes.

3. They lived on a hill which overlooked the moor.

4. They fought because they believed in the justice of
their cause.

5. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her.

6. When Pandora raised the lid of the box, the house
grew dark and dismal.

7. He prayeth best who loveth best,
All things both great and small.

8. Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife

Broods in the grass while her husband sings.

9. A man who is not content with a little is likely to be
content with nothing.

10. When the ostrich gets tired, it runs from side to side,
or in a curve.

Exercise 44

Rewrite the following sentences ^ substituting phrases
or single words for Modifying Clauses:

1. Wherever he went, he was welcome.

2. Things that are beautiful are ennobling.

3. Boys that may be trusted are easily found.

4. A dty that is set on a hill cannot be hid.

5. Philadelphia stands where the Schuylkill joins the
Delaware.

74 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 45

Rewrite the following sentences, changing the itali-
cized words and phrases into Clauses:

1. He listened to her every word,

2. She has a walking doll.

3. After dinner we are going for a picnic.
/^, At noon they go home for luncheon.
$. An honest man never lies.

Exercise 46

I. Change the following words and phrases into
equivalent Clauses, and use the Clauses in sentences of
your own tnaking:

1. Leafless. 5. After sunset.

2. Your. 6, At low tide.

3. Industrious. 7. At noon.

4. Wise. 8. By moonlight.

2. Write two sentences containing Modifying
Clauses.

Exercise 47

1. Write a sentence in which the subject is modified
by single Words; one in which it is modified by a
Phrase; one in which it is modified by a Clause.

2. Write a sentence in which the verb is modified
by single Wofds; one in which it is modified by a
Phrase; one in which it is modified by a Clause.

OF MODIFIERS 75

Exercise 48'

Tell whether the following groups of related words
are Phrases or Clatises:

1. How he got home.

2. Made by the Indians.

3. To tell the truth.

4. Darkness coming on.

5. Whether he is ready.

6. Standing by the door.

7. Ignorant of his duty.

8. Having struck twelve.

9. Before leaving the dty.

10. To better his condition.

11. Having made his fortune.

12. Before we leave the city.

13. That you have wronged me.

14. The train having started.

15. Having lowered the bridge.

16. Where Shakespeare was bom.

17. Busied with public affairs.

18. Till on dry land he lights.

19. Where the gray birches wave.

20. The bridge having been lowered.

21. Before he had lowered the bridge.

22. As soon as the bridge was lowered.

23. The left wing having been repulsed.

24. Where'er the navy spreads her canvas wings.

25. Doomed for a certain time to walk the night.

* To the Teacher. This formal exercise is intended for pupils who
are slow to distinguish phrases and clauses.

76 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 49

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the
Modifying Clauses:

I . He lay where he fell.

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence.
The complete subject is "He." The predicate is "lay where
he fell." The predicate consists of the verb "lay" modified
by the clause "where he fell."

Model for Written Analysis:

S. V.

He lay

Iwhere he fell

Note. Clauses, and some Phrases, are often most conveniently
diagrammed as units, without breaking them up into their funda-
mental parts. See Note to Teacher, page 63.

2. A glutton lives that he may eat.

3. Where the bee sucks, there suck I.

4. Just as I awoke, the clock struck six.

5. The evil that men do lives after them.

6. God helps those who help themselves.

7. Blessed is he that considereth the poor.

8. The task which you have to do is easy.

9. A temperate man eats that he may live.

10. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

11. They that govern most make least noise.

12. My eyes make pictures when they are shut.

13. The city to which I refer is Constantinople.

14. When the heart stops beating, life stops too.

OF MODIFIERS 77

15. People who live in glass houses must not throw stones.

16. Rex found a young robin, which had fallen from its
nest.

1 7 . The average age of those who enter college is seventeen.

1 8. Theman who wanted to see you went away an hour ago.

19. The fur which now warms a monarch once warmed a
bear.

20. He that loses his conscience has nothing that is worth
keeping.

21. Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered
together.

22. Kindness is the golden chain by which society is
boimd together.

23. The moon, that once was round and full,
Is now a silver boat.

24. My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky.

25. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow.

51. Modifjring Clauses Classified. The principal
ideas expressed by modifying clauses are the fol-
lowing:

(i) Description: The rope, which was old, snapped.

(2) Time: He started when the sun rose.

(3) Place: Wherever I went was my poor dog Tray.

(4) Condition: Rob will go if Ethel goes.

(5) Concession: Though pain is not the greatest evil, yet
it is an evil.

(6) Cause: I came because you called me.

78 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

(7) Purpose: A glutton lives thai he may eat.

(S) Degree: Ralph is stronger than Katherine {is\.

(9) Result: I am so tired that I cannot stand.

Exercise 50

Tell what idea is expressed by each of the Modifying
Clauses in Exercise 49.

52. Indirect Objects. Compare the following
s«itences:

(a) Jack gave a penny.

(b) Jack gave me a penny.

In (a) and (b) "Jack" is the subject, "gave" is
the verb, and "penny" is the object. The word
"me" in the second sentence denotes the person
to whom Jack gave the penny. In (c) "Father" is
the subject and "Jack" denotes the person /^r whom
Father bought the ball.

A word used to denote the person or thing to or
for whom something is done is called an Indirect
Object.

If we change the position of "me" and "Jack" in
sentences (b) and (c) we must use the word "to"
or "for," as:

"Jack gave a penny to we.
"Father bought a hsMfor Jack,^^

In these sentences "me" and "Jack" are no longer
indirect objects, but parts of phrases.

OF MODIFIERS 79

Definition. An indirect object is a word used to
denote the person or thing to or for whom something
is done.

Other examples of indirect objects are:

Mother bought Alice a doll.
She made Ruth a new dress.

53. Caution. Not every word answering the
question "to whom or what?'' or "for whom or what?"
is an indirect object. For example, the italicized
words in the following sentences are not indirect
objects: "Mother went to town and bought me a
doll for a dollar.''

How are these words used?

The verbs "ask" and "teach" take two substantives, one
in a relation sometimes expressed by a preposition: as, "He
asked me a question"; "He asked a question of f»e";
"My father taught me French." In the first and third
sentences, me is a direct object, and question and French may
be called Secondary Objects.

Exercise 51

Make a list of the Indirect Objects in the following
sentences:

1. Will you do me a favor?

2. He paid the men their wages.

3. Give me liberty, or give me death.

4. Riches certainly make themselves wings.

5. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.

8o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

6. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends.

7. Owe. no man anything, but to love one another.

8. The God who gave us life gave us liberty at the same
time.

9. If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him
drink.

10. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul!

As the swift seasons roll!

Exercise 52

1. With the following verbs form five sentences, each
containing an Indirect Object:

bring get pay send tell

2. Change your sentences so that Indirect Objects
that were single words shall now be expressed by
phrases.

54. Appositives. Compare the following sen-
tences :

Paul was beheaded in the reign of Nero.
Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero,
emperor of Rome,

In the second sentence, you observe, the meaning
of "Paul" and of "Nero" is made clearer by setting
next to each of them by way of explanation another
name for the same person or thing.

A name set next to another name by way of ex-
planation, and denoting the same person or thing,
is called an Appositive (Latin, "set next to").

OF MODIFIERS 8i

The appositive or explanatory name is said to be
in Apposition with the word which it explains.

Definition. An appositive is a name set next to
another name by way of explanation, and denoting
the same person or thing.

In the definition of an appositive, the words "denoting
the same person or thing" are needed to distinguish an
appositive from a possessive modifier like "John's" in the
expression "John's hat"; or from an explanatory word like
"Texas" in the expression "El Paso, Texas."

54a. Punctuation of Appositives. An appositive,
with its modifiers, is set ofif by commas imless it is
very closely connected in thought with the word
which it explains.

Exercise 53

Make a list of the words in Apposition in the follow-
ing sentences :

1. My sister Elizabeth is to go abroad soon.

2. Mabel, his daughter, came into the room.

3. My dog, a fine collie, must be kept tied.

4. Blessings on thee, barefoot boy!

5. John Stuart Mill, the philosopher, learned the Greek
alphabet when he was three years old.

6. The Queen of Scots, Mary Stuart, was beheaded by
order of her cousin. Queen Elizabeth.

7. We were guided by our old acquaintance, the trapper.

8. Herod, the Roman governor, beheaded John the
Baptist.

9. The moon, that lovely lantern of the night, outshone
the fire-fly's light.

82 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURif:

10. "Pray, who are you, beautiful creature?'* inquired
Pandora.

11. Behold her, yon solitary Highland lass.

12. The stranger came, a timid suppliant, and asked to
lie down on the red man's bear-skin.

13. Then lagoo, the great boaster.
Made a bow for Hiawatha.

14. By the shining Big-Sea- Water,
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis,
Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis.

15. This was the wedding morn of Priscilla, the Puritan
maiden.

Exercise 54

Make a list of the words in Apposition in thefollow^
ing sentences:

1. Hail, holy light! oflfspring of heav'n.

2. The meek-ey'd Mom appears, mother of dews.

3. Come, gentle Spring! ethereal Mildness! come.

4. The postman comes, the herald of a noisy world.

5. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark
of celestial fire — conscience.

6. Let not women's weapons, water drops
Stain my man's cheeks!

7. A famous man is Robin Hood,
The English ballad singer's joy.

8. Aurora now, fair daughter of the dawn,
Sprinkled with rosy light the dewy lawn.

OF MODIFIERS ^

9. Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of
Grand- Pre,
Dwelt on his goodly acres.

10. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven,
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the

angels.

11. The spacious firmament on high,
With all the blue ethereal sky.

And spangled heavens, a shining frame.
Their great Original proclaim.

12. She dwelt among the untrodden ways

Beside the springs of Dove —
A maid whom there were none to praise
And very few to" love.

Exercise 55

Write five sentences containing A p positives.

55. Modifiers of Modifiers. Thus far we have
considered chiefly the modifiers of subject, verb, and
complement. But, as you have already seen,
modifiers are themselves often modified, and we
find phrases attached to phrases, clauses attached
to clauses. Thus:

(a) Fanny sings very well.

Subject Verb

Fanny sings

well,
very

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

(b) The widow of the fisherman who was drowned lives in
a cottage by the sea.

Subject
widow

Verb

lives
[in cottage

The
of fish

erman

the

by sea

who was drowned

the

u
CO

This is rat
the

that ate malt

the
that lay

in house

the

that Jack built.

Note. In diagramming long sentences, it is often suf-
ficient and usually more convenient to treat subordinate
clauses as units, without breaking them up into subject,
verb, and complement. Modifiers may be shown as modifiers,
if desired; but a diagram which is too complicated, defeats
its own purpose. The same remarks apply to some phrases,
especially if the sentence is long.

OF MODIFIERS

Exercise 56

Analyze the following sentences:

I. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower
And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down.

Model for Oral Analysis. The subject is "Three
wives." The simple subject is "wives," modified by "three."
There are two predicates, "sat up in the lighthouse tower"
and "trimmed the lamps as the sun went down." The
verb in the first predicate is "sat," a verb of complete predi-
cation, modified by "up" and the phrase "in the lighthouse
tower." In the second predicate the verb is "trimmed,"
with "l^unps" as object complement. "Trimmed" is modified
by the time clause "as the sun went down," and "lamps" is
modified by "the."

Model for Written Analysis:

wives

Three

sat

in the lighthouse tower

and
trimmed

lamps

as the sun went down. the

2. Bright the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men.

3. Animals that live in the Arctic regions among snow and
ice have white fur. •

4. Near the "bonny Doon" stands the little clay-built
cottage in which Robert Burns was born.

5. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports,
made their playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts,
witches, and Indians.

S6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young a

soldier lay
Tom with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding
slow his life away.

7. Between the andirons' straggling feet
The mug of cider simmered slow.

8. The house dog on his paws outspread
Laid to the fire his drowsy head.

9. Sharply clashing horn on horn,
Impatient down the stanchion rows
The cattle shake their walnut bows.

xo. A little nonsense now and then
Is relished by the wisest men.

11. I stood on the bridge at midnight,
As the clocks were striking the hour.

12. Forth into the forest straightway
All alone walked Hiawatha
Proudly, with his bows and arrows.

13. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought.
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought,
Chir hearts, in glad surprise,

To higher levels rise.*

14. In my study I see in the lamplight,

Descending the broad hall stair,
Grave Alice and laughing AUegra
And Edith with golden hair.

OF MODIFIERS 87

Exercise 57

(General Review)
Analyze the following sentences:

I. I came to a shady spot where the grass was wet with
the dew that still lay upon it.

Model for Oral Analysis. The subject of this sen-
tence is "I." The predicate is the rest of the sentence. The
main verb in the predicate is "came," a verb of complete
predication, modified by the phrase "to a shady spot."
"Spot" is modified by "a" and "shady" and the clause of
place, "where the grass was wet," in which "the grass" is
the subject, "was" is the verb, and "wet" is an attribute
complement. "Wet" is modified by the phrase "with the
dew." "Dew" is modified by "the" and the descriptive
clause "that still lay upon it," in which "that" is the subject
and "lay" is the verb, modified by "still" and the phrase
"upon it."

Model for Written Analysis:

S.V.

I came

[to spot

shady

w here grass was wet

|the with dew

the
that lay

upon it
stiU

88 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

2. Nearly all dogs like the water.

3. The man in the moon came down too soon.

4. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.

5. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience
in everything.

6. When I look upon the tombs of the great every
emotion of envy dies in me.

7. Pompeii was suddenly buried beneath a shower of
ashes from Mount Vesuvius.

8. People will not look forward to posterity who never
look backward to their ancestors.

9. Books that you may carry to the fire and hold readily
in your hand are the most useful after all.

10. The deep cave among the rocks on the hillside was
long the secret home of a family of foxes.

11. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it
eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes.

12. The water of our brook, after flowing under the
bridge and through the meadow, falls over little precipices
of rocks till it reaches the level of the lake, fifty feet below.

13. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward 4>ecame
a distinguished statesman and philosopher, learned his trade
in the printing office of his brother, who published a paper in
Boston.

14. At the doorway of his wigwam
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker,
In the land of the Dacotahs,
Making arrowheads of jasper.

15. At his side, in all her beauty.
Sat the lovely Minnehaha,
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes.

OF MODIFIERS 89

16. Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful

procession,
Came from the neighboring hamlets and farms the

Acadian women,
Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to

the seashore.

17. In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the

Pilgrims,
To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive

dwelling,
Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan

leather.
Strode, with a martial air. Miles Standish, the Puritan

captain.

18. A king sat on the rocky brow
Which looks o'er sea-bom Salamis.

19. Shut in from all the world without.
We sat the clean-winged hearth about.
Content to let the north wind roar

In baffled rage at pane and door,
While the red logs before us beat
The frost line back with tropic heat.

20. That orbed maiden with white fire laden,
Whom mortals call the moon.

Glides glimmering o'er my* fleece-like floor,
By the midnight breezes strewn.

21. When I see kings lying by those who deposed them;
when I consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy
men that divided the world with their contests and disputes.
I reflect with sorrow and astonishment on the little com-
petitions, factions, and debates of mankind. — Addison:
"Visit to Westminster Abbey."

* A cloud is supposed to be speakiog.

CHAPTER VI

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES

In the last chapter we learned that groups of
words are often used with the force of single words;
and that such groups are Phrases if they contain
neither subject nor predicate, Clauses if they do
contain a subject and a predicate. The illustrative
sentences and the exercises contained many such
groups used as modifiers. We are now to learn that
phrases and clauses are also used as subjects j contn
plements, and appositives. Such phrases and clauses
are called Substantive Phrases and Substantive
Clauses.

56. Phrases as Subjects. Examine the subject
of each of the following sentences, and, if possible,
pick out the single word that may be used as the
simple subject :

Subject Verb Complement

Tom's being there saved the house.

To jump across the chasm was impossible.

You observe that no single word can be taken

alone as the simple subject. The assertion is made

about the idea expressed by the entire phrase used

as a substantive (27).

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 91

Exercise 58

Complete the following sentences by adding assertions
about the ideas expressed by the Substantive Phrases:

1. To die for one's country . 5. To write a story .

2. Skating on the pond . 6. Chopping wood .

3. Writing compositions . 7. To find a horseshoe .

4. Playing football . 8. To tell a lie .

Exercise 59

Make sentences with the following predicates by
filling the blanks with Phrases used as Subjects:

I. is dishonorable 5. was great fun.

2. annoys me. 6. would make you laugh.

3. is bad luck. 7. is impossible.

4. is hard work. 8. Does make you tired?

57. Phrases as Complements. Examine each
of the following complements, and determine whether
any single word may be taken as the complement
of the verb:

Subject Verb Direct Object

He despised telling a lie.

I like to go to the country.

Subject Verb Subjective Complement

That is out of bounds.

02 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Subject Verb Direct Object Objective Complement

They danced themselves out of breath.
They kept us in suspense

From this it is clear that phrases are often used
substantively as complements of the verb.

Exercise 60

Complete the following sentences by adding ideas
expressed by Phrases^ and tell whether the Phrases are
used as Objects, Subjective Complements, or Objective
Complements:

1. Our house is . 5. What I want is .

2. We intend . 6. Washington forced the British — .

3. He made us . 7. The Alps are ,

4. He seemed . 8. I like .

Exercise 61

In the following sentences copy the Phrases, and
tell how they are used:

1. Study to be quiet.

2. The vessels were of oak.

3. Out of sight is out of mind.

4. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean.

5. The price of wisdom is above rubies.

6. A man should learn to govern himself.

7. To break a promise is a breach of honor.

8. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord.

9. This morning Carrie seemed in good spirits.

10. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 93

Exercise 62

Write a sentence containing a Phrase used as Stib-
ject; as Object; as Subjective Complement; as Objective
Complement.

58. Clauses as Subjects. Examine the following
sentences, and consider whether any single word
can be named as the subject.

Consider, also, whether the groups of words ex-
pressing the subject are phrases or clauses. Give
the reason for your answer:

Subject Predicate

What they say is not to the point.
That you have wronged me doth appear in tMs.
Whether I can go is uncertain.

From this it is clear that a clause may be used
as the subject of a sentence.

Exercise 63

Make sentences by adding assertions about the ideas
expressed by the following Clauses used as subjects:

1. What he wants .

2. Whether you go or stay .

3. That two and two make foiu:

4. Whom it belongs to ,

5. What he does .

6. Where he went .

7. When we shall start —

8. "Charge for the guns"

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 64

Fill the blanks with Clauses used as Subjects:

3-
4.

is unknown,
was foretold,
pleases me.
is doubtful.

S-
6.

7-
8.

is of no importance,
will never be discovered,
were his words,
has been proved.

59. Clauses as Complements. Examine the fol-
lowing sentences, and consider whether any single
word can be named as the complement. Consider,
also, whether the groups of words used as comple-
ments are phrases or clauses.

Subject Verb

Direct Object

Galileo

She

Subject

taught
asked
showed
doubt

Verb

that the earth moves,
who I was.
where she had put it.
whether I can go.

Subjective Complement

This

Her chief fault

This

was
seemed

what I want,
that she would not read,
what he pretended to be.
where the arbutus grows.

Subject

Verb

made

Object Objective Complement

what I am.

From this it is clear that clauses may be used
as complements.

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 95

Exercise 65

Fill the blanks with Clauses used as Complements,
and tell whether they are used as Objects or Subjective
Complements:

1. Do you know ? 6. Have you heard ?

2. I fear . 7. The question is .

3. My hope is . 8. Things are seldom .

4. We saw . 9. Let us ask .

5. His cry was — - — . 10. I think .

60. Clauses as Appositives. Examine the fol-
lowing sentence :

THe Araos nave a superstition that the stork has a human
heart.

Here the clause "that the stork has a human
heart" is in apposition (54) with the word "super-
stition."

From this we see that clauses may be used as
appositives.

Exercise 66

Fill the blanks with Clauses in Apposition with the
italicized words:

1. The report is untrue.

2. The news has just come.

3. We have just learned the fact •

4. I cherish the hope .

5. He made the assertion .

96 -SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Exercise 67

Copy the Clauses in Apposition in the following
sentences and write opposite each the word which it
explains:

1. The popular idea that water is purified by freezing is
a mistake.

2. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay
down his life for his friends.

3. Dr. Watts's saying that birds in their little nests
agree is far from being true.

4. The proverb "Never cross a bridge till you come to it"
is old and of excellent wit.

5. Books have this advantage over travel, that they
convey information from remote times.

6. It was a maxim with Bentley that no man was ever
written out of reputation but by himself.

7. The Declaration of Independence announced the truth
that all power comes from the people.

8. In the armory of Venice is this inscription: "Happy
is that city which in time of peace thinks of war."

9. The theory that the earth revolves around the sun
was not generally accepted till after the invention of the
telescope.

10. Know then this truth (enough for man to know), —
"Virtue alone is happiness below."

Exercise 68

Write a sentence containing a Clause used as a
Subject; as Object; as Subjective Complement; as an
A p positive.

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 97

Exercise 69

(Review)

Copy the Clauses in the following sentences and tell
how they are used:

1. Ask if you may go too.

2. Life is what we make it.

3. What he does is well done.

4. What you want is not here.

5. Take whichever you choose.

6. Show us where you found it.

7. This is not what I asked for.

8. What he promises, he will do.

9. No one can tell how this will end.

10. A servant must do what he is told.

11. No man can lose what he never had.

12. "I am going a-milking, sir/' she said.

13. Whether you go or stay is of little accoimt.

14. The village all declared how much he knew.

15. He acknowledged that he had made a mistake.

16. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well.

17. Reputation is what we seem; character is what we are.

18. Lawrence's dying words were, "Don't give up the
ship."

19. That the earth is roxmd is proved by the shape of its
shadow.

20. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a
continent.

gS SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

II.

21. What a man puts into his head cannot be stolen
from him.

22. The war cry of the Crusaders was, "It is the will of
Godl"

23. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" was God's question
to guilty Cain.

24. One of the many objections to betting is that it
demoralizes the character.

25. The world will not inquire who you are. It will ask,
"What can you do?"

26. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has
any control over dreams.

27. The explanation of the apparent daily motion of the
sun and stars is that the earth spins like a top.

28. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls.
With vassals and serfs at my side.

29. Time will teach thee soon the truth,
There are no birds in last yearns nest.

30. Percy's shout was fainter heard,
" My merry men, fight on! "

To the Teacher. Phrases and clauses used with prepositions are
treated in Part II.

CHAPTER VII

OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

61. Independent Elements Defined. Examine
the following sentence:

I am going a-milking, sir.

Here, you observe, the subject is "I"; the predicate
is "am going a-milking." The word "sir" belongs
neither to the subject nor to the predicate, and
therefore is not really a part of the sentence. It is
merely attached to the sentence to show to whom
it is addressed.

A word or group of words attached to a sentence
without forming a grammatical part of it is called
an Independent Element.

Definition. An independent element is a word
or group of words attached to a sentence without
forming a grammatical part of it.

62. Vocatives. In "I am going a-milking, sir,"
the independent element "sir" indicates the person
to whom the sentence is addressed.

An independent element used to indicate the
person or thing addressed is called a Vocative
(Latin voco^ "I call").'

^The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature
suggests the term Nominative of Address y which may be substituted for
Vocative^ if desired.

loo SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

Definition. A vocative is an independent word
attached to a sentence to indicate the person or
thing addressed.

Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with the
subjects of imperative sentences. In "Come on, boys,"
"boys " is a vocative. The subject of the command "come
on" is omitted as usual; if expressed, it would be "you,"
as, "Come [you] on, boys."

Exercise 70

Make a list of the Vocative words in the following
sentences:

1. Drink, pretty creature, drink.

2. Give me of your balm, O fir tree.

3. Mr. President, my object is peace.

4. Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State.

5. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again.

6. Wave your tops, ye pines, in sign of worship.

7. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll!

8. Sir, I would rather be right than be President.

9. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not.

10. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.

63. Punctuation of Vocatives. A vocative and
its modifiers should be set off by commas, thus:
*'Where are you going, my pretty maid?"

OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS loi

Exercise 71

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise 70.

64. Exclamations. Examine the following sentence :
What! are you going?

Here the subject is "you"; the predicate is "are
going." "What" is an independent word attached
to the sentence as an outcry or expression of sudden
feeling.

A word or group of words used as an outcry or
expression of sudden feeling is called an Exclamation.

Definition. An exclamation is a word or group
of words used to express sudden or strong f eelmg.

Exercise 72

Make a list of the independent elements in the fol-
lowing sentences^ and tell whether they are Vocatives
or Exclamations:

1. Oh, hurry, hurry!

2. Ah! there they come.

3. Hurrah! our work is done.

4. The boy, oh! where was he?

5. Poor man! he never came back.

6. Mortimer! who talks of Mortimer?

7. Ba, ba, black sheep, have you any wool?

8. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn?

9. Alas! poor creature! how she must have suffered!

10. Ay me! what perils do environ

The man that meddles with cold iron!

I02 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

65. Punctuation of Exclamations. An exclama-
tion should be followed by an exclamation point (!),
thus: "Pshaw! there goes the bell."

Exercise 73

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise 72.

66. Parenthetical Expressions. Examine the fol-
lowing sentence:

This, to tell the truth, was a mistake.

Here the subject is "This"; the predicate is "was
a mistake." "To tell the truth" is a phrase, forming
no part of the sentence (which is complete without
it), but attached to it as a sort of comment or side
remark.

A phrase or clause attached to a sentence as a sort
of side remark or comment is called Parenthetical
(Greek, "put in beside".)

Definition. A parenthetical expression is one at-
tached to a sentence as a sort of side remark.

Exercise 74

Point out the Parenthetical Expressions in the foU
lowing sentences:

1. At all events, he did his best.

2. In fact, there was nothing else to do.

OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 103

3. I ielt, to say the least, a little nervous.

4. Her conduct, generally speaking, was admirable.

5. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as luck.

6. The ship leaped, as it were, from billow to billow.

7. To speak plainly, your manner was somewhat rude.

8. To the best of my recollection, she was not there!

9. Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between thee
and me.

10. The army of Xerxes, to put it in round numbers,
comprised 2,500,000 persons.

67. Punctuation of Parenthetical Expressions.

Short parenthetical expressions are usually set off
by commas. But if the parenthetical expression is
long, or if there are already several commas in the
sentence, parentheses ( ) should be used instead of
commas, thus: "I know that in me (that is, in my
flesh) dwelleth no good thing.''

Exercise 75

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise 74.

68. Pleonasm. Examine the following sentence:

Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me.

Here we have more words than enough. The
words "Thy rod and thy staff" name the subject of
the thought; but the grammatical subject of the
sentence is "they," and the predicate, "comfort me*"

I04 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

It is as if we used two subjects denoting the same
thing, thus:

Thy rod and thy staff \ r j.

They J ^0^^^^ ^^

The use of more words than are needed to express
the thought is called Pleonasm ("more than

enough").

Definition. Pleonasm is the use of more words
than are needed to express the thought.

Other examples of pleonasm are:

The smith, a mighty man is he.

My banks, they are furnished with bees.

This construction was once very good EngKsh,
but it is now imcommon, and as a rule should not
be imitated.

Exercise 76

Write two sentences of your own with Vocatives
attached; two with Exclamations; one with a Paren^
thetical Expression.

69. Summary of the Parts of a Sentence. The

parts of a sentence, which we have now studied, may-
be smnmarized as follows:

OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

los

Subject

(22)

Word (27).
Phrase (56).
Clause (58).

Verb or Verb Phrase
(27) (30)

Sidjective

(38)

Complements

(36)

Direct
Object

(39)

Modifiers
(43)

Objective
(40)

f Word (43, 52, 54).
Phrase (47).
Clause (49).

Word (38).
Phrase (57
Clause (59
Word (39).
Phrase (57
Clause (s9
Word (40),
Phrase (57
Clause (s9

Independent Expressions
(61)

' Vocative (62).

Exclamatory (64).

Parenthetical (66).
, Pleonastic (68).

Exercise 77

(General Review)

1. Reprodttce from memory the preceding summary ^
omitting the numerical references.

2. Define and illustrate each of the terms used in
the summary.

To the Teacher. The nominative absolute, which is independent
in form though it is really a modifier, is treated in Part II.

CHAPTER VIII

OF SENTENCES AS SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND

COMPOUND

With respect to meaning, sentences are classified
as Declarative^ Interrogative^ or Imperative. With
respect to form, they are either Simple, Complex, or
Compomid.

70. Simple Sentences. Examine the following
sentences :

Subject Predicate

a. The horses

b. The horses

and
the cattle

C' The horses

d. The horses '

and

the cattle

took fright.

took fright

and
, ran away.

took fright

and
, ran away.

Each of these sentences, you obser\'^e, contains
only one subject and one predicate, though several
of the subjects and predicates are compound.

io6

SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 107

A sentence which contains only one subject and
one predicate, either or both of which may be com-
poxmd, is called a Simple Sentence.

Definition. A simple sentence is a sentence con-
taining only one subject and one predicate.

In a simple sentence with compound subject and predi-
cate, every verb belongs to every simple subject, and every
simple subject belongs to every verb.

Some grammarians hold that there are as many sentences
or clauses in anything we say as there are verbs. According
to them, sentences (c) and (d) are not simple sentences, but
two separate sentences united, with some words omitted,
as: *The horses took fright and [the hor^s] ran away";
"The horses and the cattle took fright and [the horses and
the cattle] ran away."

71. Complex Sentences. Compare the following
sentences :

(i) I awoke.

(2) I awoke when the clock struck five.

You observe that the first sentence is a simple
sentence, making a statement which stands alone,
and it is not dependent on anything else.

The second sentence consists of two clauses: (i)
the clause "I awoke," which makes the principal or
independent statement, and (2) the clause "when the
clock struck five," which modifies the principal
statement and is therefore subordinate to it and
dependent on it.

The clause making the principal statement is called
the Principal Clause.

io8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

A clause used as a subordinate part of a sen-
tence, and dependent on the principal clause, is
called a Subordinate Clause.

A sentence containing one or more subordinate
clauses is called a Complex Sentence (Latin,
^Voven together").

DeHniiion. The principal clause in a sentence is
the clause which makes the principal statement.

Definition. A subordinate clause is a clause
used as a subordinate part of a sentence.

Definition. A complex sentence is a sentence
containing one or more subordinate clauses.

Two or more principal, or two or more subordinate
clauses, of the same rank, are called Co-ordinate Clauses.

Exercise 78

Change the following Simple Sentences into Complex
Sentences by changing the italicized words or phrases
into clatiseSy and underline the subordinate clauses:

1. People living in glass houses should not throw stones.
Model. People who live in glass houses should not throw

stones.

2. Tell me your age.

3. Mercury had wings on his feet.

4. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

5. My sister will visit us in the summer.

6. At high tide we rowed out to the island.

7. Audubon loved the animals near his home.

SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 109

8. The man with the gray coat is the President.

9. No wind could shake a house built on a rock.

10. She was a lovely girl with charming manners.

11. Approaching the village ^ Rip Van Winkle met a niun-
ber of people.

72. Uses of Subordinate Clauses. Compare the
following sentences:

1. Galileo taught.

2. Galileo taught whenever he could.

3. Galileo taught that the earth moves.

4. That the earth moves was taught by Galileo.

5. Galileo discovered the fact that the earth moves.

You observe that (i) is a simple sentence, making
an independent statement. In (2) the main state-
ment is modifitd by the subordinate clause "when-
ever he could." In (3) "that the earth moves" is a
subordinate clause used as the object of "taught."
In (4) it is a subordinate clause used as the subject
of "was taught by Gahleo" and the principal clause is
the entire sentence. In (5) it is a subordinate
clause used in apposition with the word "fact."

Subordinate clauses are used as (i) modifiers,
(2) subjects, (3) complements, and (4) appositives;
and all clauses used as modifiers, subjects, comple-
ments, or appositives are subordinate.

A subordinate clause may also be used with a preposition
(86) : as, I spoke of what Galileo taught.

iro SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

It is sometimes said that subordinate clauses can be
recognized by the fact that they do not by themselves make
complete sense. This is not a sure test, for:

(i) Some subordinate clauses make complete sense by
themselves; for example, " */ am going a-milking, sir,^ she
said." Here the direct quotation is dearly the object of
"said," and is therefore a subordinate clause; yet it makes
complete sense by itself.

(2) Sopae principal clauses cannot stand by th^nselves:
for example, "As a man lives, so must he dieJ^

Exercise 79

Copy the following Complex Sentences, underline
the Subordinate Clauses, and tell how each Subordinate
Clause is used:

1. We went to the woods when school was over.

Model for Written Exercise. We went to the woods
when school was over. Modifies "went."

2. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom.

3. Water that is stagnant is imwholesome.

4. When the bough breaks, the cradle will fall.

5. He saves what he earns.

6. Make hay while the sun shines.

7. A book is a friend whose face never changes.

8. He that is strong is not always brave.

9. Tell me how old you are.

10. That you have wronged me doth appear in this.

11. Washington had a maxim that superiors should always
be obeyed.

SIMI>LE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND in

73. Compound Sentences. Examine the follow-
ing sentences :

The rain descended, | and | the floods came, | and | the
winds blew.

The way was long, | the wind was cold,|
The minstrel was infirm and old.

In these selections we see imited into one sentence
several clauses that are complete in themselves.
Although closely related in thought, they could be
separated without injury; therefore, they are In-
dependent clauses.

A sentence consisting of two or more independent
clauses is called a Compound Sentence.

Definition. A compound sentence is a sentence
containing two or more independent clauses.

The independent statements united in a com-
pound sentence may have subordinate clauses
attached to them. For example, the following
compound sentence consists of two co-ordinate
principal clauses, each modified by a subordinate
clause. It is a combination of two complex sentences :

The rain descended until the streams overflowed, \ and | the
winds blew as they had never blown before,

74. Compoimd Sentences Classified. If we ex-
amine compound sentences closely, we find that thejr
are of four kinds:

112 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

(i) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united
because of a similarity of meaning or a continuation of the
same line of thought: as,

Fear God | and | keep his commandments.

(2) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united
because they stand in contrast: as,

He ran to the station, | but | he missed the train.
We called at the house, | but | we did not see her.

(3) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united
because they present thoughts between which one must
make a choice: as.

The book is lost I or I some one has taken it.

(4) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united
because they express cat4se and effect: as,

Carl was tired, | therefore | he went to bed.
Carl went to bed I for I he was tired.

75. Connecting Words. In the sentences given
in the last section as illustrations, the connecting
words are "and," "but," "or," "therefore," and
"for." These are the most common joining words
in the four kinds of compound sentences.

Other connectives are frequently used, such as
"also," "moreover," "nor," "nevertheless."

Often there are no connecting words at all, the
connection between the clauses being indicated only
by the pimctuation.

To tell how the separate parts of a compound
sentence are related to one another, we must con-
sider, not the connectives, but the meaning of the
paits.

SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 113

Exercise 80

Separate the following Compound Sentences into

their independent parts, and tell how the parts are

1. Man proposes, but God disposes.

Model for Oral ExERasE. This is a compound sen-
tence, containing the clauses "Man proposes'* and "God
disposes." The connecting word is "but." The independ-
ent clauses are related by contrast.

Model for Written Exercise. Man proposes. God
disposes. Contrast.

2. She must weep or she will die.

3. They toil not, neither do they spin.

4. It rained on Saturday, so we put off the game.

5. He says what he means, and he means what he says.

6. The leaves are falling; therefore the swallows will
soon be gone.

7. Truly there is a tfde In the affairs of men; but there is
no gulf stream setting forever in one direction.

8. There were gentlemen and there were seamen in the
navy of Charles II; but the seamen were not gentlemen,
and the gentlemen were not seamen.

9. Meager were his looks,

Sharp misery had worn him to the bones.

10. A thousand years scarce serve to form a state;
An hour may lay it in the dust.

11. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;

He who would search for pearls must dive below.

114 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

II.

12. My words fly up, my thoughts remain below;
Words without thoughts never to heaven go.

13. The rude sea grew dvil at her song,

And certain stars shot madly from their spheres
To hear the sea-maid's music.

14. But yesterday the word of Caesar might

Have stood against the world; now lies he there,
And none so poor to do him reverence.

15. Doubt thou the stars are fire;
Doubt that the sun doth move;
Doubt truth to be a liar;

But never doubt I love.

16. Arms on armor clashing brayed
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels
Of brazen chariots rag'd; dire was the noise
Of conflict.

76^ Punctuation of Compound Sentences. The

independent parts of a compound sentence should
be sejMirated by commas or semicolons.

The comma is used when the independent clauses
contain no commas and are closely related. Thus:

The rains descended, and the floods came.

The semicolon (;) is used when the independent
clauses (i) contain commas, or (2) are not very
closely related. Thus :

(i) Mary received a doll; Charles, a top.
(2) An hour passed on; the Turk awoke.

SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 115

Semicolons are sometimes used instead of commas
when the independent clauses are long. This is a
matter of taste.

Exercise 81

Write from dictation the first ten sentences in
Exercise 80.

77. Improper Compound Sentences. Untrained
speakers and writers sometimes unite in one com-
poimd sentence thoughts that are not related: as,

Oliver Goldsmith was the son of a clergyman, and when
he was young he had the smallpox.

Such a sentence offends the taste of a cultivated
person. There is no connection at all between the
two facts that are mentioned, and this independence
should be indicated by putting them in separate
sentences. Other examples are:

"Diggs belonged to the fifth form, and he was large for
his age, and his clothes were always too small, and he used
to run into debt." — From a school exercise.

"The Acadians were a French Colony living in Acadia, in
Canada, and in the war between France and England the
latter sent some ships to Acadia to remove the inhabitants
to other countries." — From a school exercise.

Exercise 82

(Review.)

Tell whether the following sentences are Simple^
Complex^ or Compound.

' If Complex, tell how the subordinate clauses are
used.

ii6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

// Compound, tell how the independent clauses are
related.

1. The sun set.

2. The sun set before the moon rose.

3. The sun set, but the moon was shining.

4. Words and feathers the wind carries away.

5. Help which is long on the road is no help.

6. A cow is a very good animal in the field; but we turn
her out of the garden.

7. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firma-
ment showeth his handiwork.

8. The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man
knows himself to be a fool.

9. Some are bom great, some achieve greatness, and some
have greatness thrust upon 'em.

10. The mountains look on Marathon,
And Marathon looks on the sea.

11. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind;
The thief doth fear each bush an officer.

II.

12. Cowards die many times before their deaths;
The valiant never taste of death but once.

13. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear;
Robes and furr'd gowns hide all.

14. When beggars die, there are no comets seen;

The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of
princes.

SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 117

15. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops.

16. I have found out a gift for my fair;

I have found where the wood pigeons breed.

17. ,He reads much;

He is a great observer, and he looks
Quite through the deeds of men.

18. This castle has a pleasant seat; the air
Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself
Unto our gentle senses.

19. God moves in a mysterious way

His wonders to perform;
He plants his footsteps in the sea
And rides upon the storm.

20. Mont Blanc is the monarch of moimtains;

They crowned him long ago
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds,
With a diadem of snow.

21. The glories of our blood and state

Are shadows, not substantial things;
There is no armor against fate;
Death lays his icy hands on kings.

Exercise 83

(Review)

I. Construct a Simple Sentence with compound
subject; with compound predicate; with both subject
and predicate compound.

ii8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

2. Constrtict a Complex Sentence containing a modi-
fying clause; a clause used as subject; a clause used
as complement.

3. Construct a Compound Sentence in which the
separate sayings are related by similarity of meaning;
by contrast; by alternate choice; by cause and effect.

CHAPTER IX

OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

78. Elliptical Sentences Defined. Language is
an intensely practical matter, designed only to
express thought, and never employed for its own
sake. It is, therefore, both natural and proper
that we should from time to time omit from our
sentences grammatical parts which it is unneces-
sary to use, our meaning being well understood
without them. Such omissions are especially com-
mon in famiUar conversation.

The omission of part of a sentence necessary to
grammatical completeness but not to the meaning is
called Ellipsis (Greek, "a leaving out").

A sentence in which an omission occurs is called
an Elliptical Sentence.

Definition. An elliptical sentence is a sentence
in which an omission occurs.

The following examples of eUipsis should be care-
fully studied. The words inclosed in brackets are
usually omitted :

(i) This is important if [it is] true.

(2) He fell while [he was] bravely leading his men.

(3) Who did that? Jack [did it].

119

120 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

5
6

7
&'

(lO

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(19

(20

I can't come. Why [can you] not [come]?

He has gone, no one knows where [he has gone].

She has a pink gown, I [have] a blue [gown].

Do you promise? I do [promise].

I have never seen her, but Blanche has [seen her].

You may stay if you want to [stay]."

He is not so tall as I [am tall].

You are wiser than I [am wise].

He looks as [he would look] if he were tired.

She is seventeen [years old].

It is half past ten [o'clock].

School doses on the twenty-second [day of the month].

[I] thank you.

Why [is] this noise [made]?

[God give you a] good morning, sir.

O [I long] for a glass of water.

You are the man [whom] I want to see.

Exercise 84

Rewrite the following sentences, supplying within
brackets the words necessary to grammatical com-
pleteness:

1. I walk when I can.

2. He is witty but vulgar.

3. I treat him as a friend.

4. She is as pretty as ever.

5. She loves Fido as well as I.

6. She loves Fido as well as me.

7. Love thy neighbor as thyself.

'■Hiis omission of tke verb after " to" is not approved by careful writers.

OF ELLIPTICAL SJJ^TENCES lai

8. I love my mother more than he.

9. I love my mother more than him.

10. Who steals my purse steals trash.

11. You have known her longer than L

12. She is more generous than prudent.

13. FalJier made and I painted the boat.

14. Are you dumb? If not, speak to me.

15. Either a knave or a fool has done this.

16. If the day be fine, and I can go, I will.

17. A greyhound can run faster than a hare.

18. He has never seen the ocean, but I have.

19. You should not imitate such a girl as she.

20. Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard
his spots?

III.

21. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man,
and writing an exact man.

22. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested.

23. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathe-
matics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave;
logic and rhetoric, able to contend.

24. We must take the current when it serves.
Or lose our ventures.

25. Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind;
And therefore is wing'd Cupid painted blind.

26. I dare do all that may become a man;
Who dares do more is none.

Z22 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE

27. Trifles light as air
Are to the jealous confirmations strong
As proofs of holy writ.

28. Blow, blow, thou winter wind!
Thou art not so unkind

As man's ingratitude.

29. Think naught a trifle, though it small appear;
Small sands the mountain, moments maJ^e the year.
And trifles life.

30. Who dares think one thing, and another tell,
My heart detests him as the gates of hell.

Exercise 85

Write Jive Elliptical Sentences, and tell what words
are omitted.

PART II

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

WITH

Practical Exercises

CHAPTER I

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Having in Part I studied sentences as wholes
and become familiar with their general structure,
we are now prepared to study the uses and forms of
single words.

79. Words Classified According to Function. Our
language contains more than two himdred thou-
sand words; but when we examine the ways in
which these words are used in sentences, we find
that we can arrange them all in a few general classes
according to their funcHotiy that is, according to
what they do. These general classes are called the
Parts of Speech.'

80. Nouns. Examine the itaUcized words in the
following sentence :

The gallant crew of the haUleship Maine were under,
perfect discipline.

The italicized words, you observe, are names of
things.

iTo the Teacher. The definitions of the parts of speech seem to
present no special difficulty to pupils; the real difficulty is to recognize
the different kinds of words as they occur. In this chapter, therefore,
much space has been given to exercises.

12$

126 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

A word used as the name of something is called a
Noun.

Definition. A noun is a word used as the name of
something.

Other examples are:

Names of objects: Webster, Chicago, army, iron.
Names of actions: walking, laughter, retreat, delay.
Names of qualities: sweetness, warmth, beauty, vice.
Names of conditions: sickness, sleep, death, fatigue.
Names of thoughts: idea, doubt, belief, opinion.

Exercise 86

Make a list of the Nouns in the following sentences:

1. Brevity is the soul of wit.

2. Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.

3. They that die by famine die by inches.

4. Nothing is impossible to diligence and skill.

5. The music of the great organ sometimes sounds like
the roll of thunder.

6. The length of the journey and the difficulty of tjie
road over the mountains discouraged the soldiers, though

* the general spirit of the army remained excellent.

7. Sailing on this lake is somewhat dangerous, because
the wind comes through the gaps of the mountains in sudden
and uneven puffs.

8. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit
before a fall.

9. Solitude is as needful to the imagination as society is
wholesome for the character.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 127

10. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.
And robes the mountain in its azure hue.

To the Teacher. If more drill in the recognition of nouns is needed,
Exercises 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, and many others will be found
suitable.

Exercise 87

Write the name of something that you can see;
of something that you can hear but not see; of some-
thing that you can feel but not see; of something that
you can smell but not see; of something that you can
neither see, taste, feel, hear, nor smell.

81. Pronouns. No one would ever say: "Charles
bought Charles a top; the top Charles afterward
gave to Charles's sister Frances; Frances wanted
the top." Such a sentence would be both disagree-
able to the ear and obscure: it might refer to one
Charles and one Frances or to more than one. We
should probably say instead: "Charles bought
himself a top, which he afterward gave to his sister
Frances, who wanted it.'^ In this sentence the
obscurity and the monotonous repetition are both
avoided by using the words "himself," "which,"
"he," "his," "who," and "it"— little words that
indicate the objects referred to without naming
them.

In asking a question about some object the name
of which we do not know, we represent the object
by "who" or "what": as, 'Who is there?" 'What
did you say?"

128 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

A word used instead of a noun is called a Pronotin.
The word (or group of words) for which a pronoun
stands is called the Antecedent of the pronoun.

Definition. A pronoim is a word used instead
of a noun.

Definition. The antecedent of a pronoun is the
word or group of words for which the pronoun
stands.

The antecedents of pronouns are often not expressed.

Exercise 88

1. Write your name. Write five substitutes for
your name that you use in referring to yourself.

2. Write five substitutes for names that you use in
speaking of yourself and others together.

3. Write the words you use as substitutes for the
names of persons to whom you are speaking; of a boy
about whom you are speaking; of a girl; of a thing;
of two boys; of three girls; of four things.

Exercise 89

Make a list of the Pronouns in the following selec-
tions:

Philadelphia, 5 July, 1775.
Mr. Strahan: — ^You are a member of Parliament, and
one of that majority which has doomed my country to
destruction. You have begun to burn our towns and murder

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 129

our pec^le. Look upon your hands; they are stained with
the blood of your relations! You and I were long friends;
you are now my enemy, and I am ^

' B. Franklin.

Then spake the chief butler unto Pharaoh, saying, I do
remember my faults this day: Pharaoh was wroth with his
servants, and put me in ward in the house of the captain of
the guard, me and the chief baker: and we dreamed a dream
in one night, I and he; we dreamed each man according to
the interpretation of his dream. And there was with us
there a young man, an Hebrew, servant to the captain of the
guard; and we told him, and he interpreted to us our dreams;
to eadi man according to his dream he did interpret. And
it came to pass, as he interpreted to us, so it was; me he
restored imto mine office, and him he hanged. Then Pharaoh
sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out
of the dungeon: and he shaved himself, and changed his
raiment, and came in unto Pharaoh.

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of pronouns is
desired, Exercises 22, 36, 49, 51, 56, and 69 will be found suitable.

82. Adjectives. Many nouns have very wide
meanings. The noim "horses," for example, ap-
plies to all the horses in the world; and to bring the
meaning of the word down to the measure of our
thought we add to it one or more distinguishing
words or modifiers : as,

Black

Trotting

Two

These [ horses.

Some

Both

X30 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Pronouns may represent objects which have dis-
tinguishing attributes, and therefore they, too, may
be accompanied by distinguishing or modif3dng
words : as,

Tired and hungry y I lay down to sleep.

A word used to modify a noun or a pronoim is
called an Adjective.

Definition. An adjective is a word used to modify
a noun or a pronoun.

Though the word "adjective" means "put next to,"
adjectives are often separated from the nouns or pronouns
which they modify: as,

You look happy.

The pears that you laid away have become ripe.
There, silent and stUly lay the army.

Some adjectives show a quality or attribute of the object
we have in mind; others show which objects; others show
how many or how much.

Exercise 90

Mention as many Adjectives as you can think of
that might be used to modify each of the following
nouns:

1. House 3. Soldiers 5. Grass . 7. Flowers 9. Cents

2. Pens 4. Shoes 6. Peaches 8. Dollars 10. Road

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 131

Exercise 91

Write the Adjectives in one column, and opposite in
another column the nouns which they modify:

1. Little strokes fell great oaks.

2. Please make no noise.

3. Where did you find those big apples?

4. I found them in the third bin.

5. Let us climb yonder mountain.

6. All men must die.

7. Most boys like football.

8. Every dog has his day.

9. No school to-morrow!

10. Along both banks are beautiful shaded walks; and
near the mill are two little islands covered with ancient trees.

Exercise 92

Make a list of the Adjectives, and opposite each
write the word which it modifies:

1. The stately homes of England, —

How beautiful they stand

Amid their tall ancestral trees,

O'er all the pleasant land!

2. The castled crag of Drachenfels
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine,

3. Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool September morn,
The clustered spires of Frederick stand,
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.

132 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

4. Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth
Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world.

5. How beautiful is night!

A dewy freshness fills the silent air;

No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain,

Breaks the serene of Heaven:

In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine

Rolls through the dark blue depths;

Beneath her steady ray

The desert circle spreads

Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky.

How beautiful is night!

83. "A" or "An" and "The." Examine the
adjectives in the following selection:

A man and a lion once had a disptUe as to which belonged
to the nobler race. The man pointed to an ancient monument
on which was sculptured a triumphant hunter standing over
a vanquished lion. "That doesn't settle the question,^' said
the lion; "for if a lion had been the sculptor, he would have
represented the lion as standing over the hunter.'^

Every noim in this selection is accompanied by
"a," "an," or "the," of which "a" and "an" are
merely diflFerent forms of the same word. These
remarkable httle words are adjectives; but they
are so peculiar in their fimction and so frequent in
recurrence that they are conveniently grouped to-
gether and called Articles.

To the Teacher. If more drill in the recognition of adjectives is
needed, Exercises 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 36, 54, 56, and many others
will be found suitable.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 133

Exercise 93

(Review)

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following
sentences:

Model for Written Exercise. Write the different
parts of speech in separate columns: thus,

N. I Pro. I Adj. I V,

1. Facts are stubborn things.

2. Order is Heaven's first law.

3. Time rolls his ceaseless course.

4. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew.

5. The groves were God's first temples.

84. Verbs. Verbs have already been studied in
Part I, Sections 27-33.

Exercise 94

Make a list of the Verbs and Verb Phrases in
Exercises 36, 38, and 39.

85. Adverbs. The action or state denoted by a
verb may vary in timCy place, manner or degree.
For example, a person may laugh now or to-morrow
here or there^ loiuily or quietly, mtich or little. Such
words, used with verbs to express modifications of

134

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

He went

Manner.

time, place, manner, or degree are called Adverbs-
Other examples are :

Adverbs.

again. 1

soon. \ Time.

yesterday. J

there. 1

yonder. } Place.

before. J

cheerfully. '

fast.

thus.

twice.

often. ^ Degree.

little. J

A few adverbs denote affirmation, negatiofiy em^
phasiSy or uncertainty: as,

He certainly went.
He did not go.
Yes, he went.
He went indeed.
Perhaps he went.

The ideas denoted by many adjectives may vary
like the actions denoted by verbs, especially in de-
gree; therefore adverbs, especially of degree, are
often used to modify adjectives : as,

He is

Adverbs

very

exceedingly
rather
somewhat
* too

Adjective

shy.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 135

Similarly, the ideas denoted by many adverbs
may vary in degree; therefore adverbs are often
used to modify adverbs : as,

Adverbs Adverb

He writes

very
too
rather
more

slowly.

Definition. An adverb is a word used to modify
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Exercise 95

Use Adverbs with the Verbs in the following sentences^
and tell whether they show timey places manner or
degree:

— . 6. We heard the noise .

1. Come .

2. He came .

3. He will come —

4. The ship sailed -
S- The agent called

7. The policeman looked .

8. The tired traveler slept .

, 9. The soldier was wounded.

-. 10. Were you thrown from

a horse?

Exercise 96

Write in one column the Adverbs and in an opposite
column the Verbs or Verb Phrases which they modify:

1. She sang well.

2. I was agreeably disappointed.

3. How is it done?

4. You have spoken truly.

5. I can hardly believe it.

136 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. He was ill pleased.

7. Cut it lengtliwise.

8. Tear it apart.

9. Put them together.

10. He was pitched headlong into the sea.

11. I never saw her.

12. We came to school late yesterday.

13. Once or twice we have met alone.

14. Ambition urges me forward.

15. Where is your hat?

16. Are you going far?

17. We are going abroad.

18. The shades of night were falling fast.

19. The night is come, but not too soon.

20. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship,
Yet she sailed softly too.

Exercise 97

Use ds many appropriate Adverbs as you can think
of with each of the following Adjectives:

I. good. 4. more. 7. tired.

2. happy. 5. rich. 8. famous.

3. sick. 6. discouraged. 9. dark.

10. close.

Exercise 98

Write in one column the Adverbs y and in an apposite
column the Adjectives which they modify:

1 . Are you quite sure?

2. He was a very tall man.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 137

3. He was wholly unfit for the position.

4. Too many cooks spoil the broth.

5. The sky was nearly black.

6. Mother is somewhat better.

7. The wide fringe is too dear.

8. The Alps are far grander than these mountains.

9. Trout are exceedingly shy.
10. The walk was rather long.

Exercise 99

FUl with appropriate Adverbs the blanks in the
following sentences:

1. He ran

2. She sings —

3. She reads -

4. They come

5. I recited —

fast.

— well.

— more.
often.

6. Write carefully.

7. I must go soon.

once.

8. Don't go

9. I went —
10. I feel —

— far.
before.

better.

Exercise 100

(Review)

Make a list of all the Adverbs^ and tell what they
modify:

1. I was very kindly received.

2. Go directly south.

3. You read very much too fast.

4. Do not show your feeling too plainly.

138 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

5. That was not done well enough.

6. I will surely disturb you no more.

7. We are indeed almost there.

8. He is always there.

9. Yes, we unfortunately arrived too soon.

10. I surely expect him to-morrow.

11. The current runs very fast here.

12. The shadow on the dial never goes backward.

13. To and fro, and in and out, the wan stars danced
between.

14. She dances very well indeed.

15. He is not much distressed.

16. Possibly he has forgotten how much you grieved.

17. The clock that usually stands here has never nm
accurately.

18. Why did you come to-day?

19. You are far too hasty.

20. I am now much better; I hope to be quite well very
soon, but I must not try to walk too far to-day.

21. You may do that once too often.

22. 'Tis always morning somewhere in the world.

23. He's armed without that's innocent within.

24. Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further; and here
shall thy proud waves be stayed.

25. The mouse that always trusts to one poor hole.
Can never be a mouse of any soul.

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of adverbs is
needed,. Exercises 25, 36, and 56 will be found suitable.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 139

Exercise 101

(Review)

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following
sentences:

Model for Written Exercise:

N. I Pro. I Adj. I V. I Adv.

1. Thou shalt surely die.

2. There he was quite safe.

3. My sister will come presently.

4. This child was very little hurt.

5. Little white lily smells very sweet.

86. Prepositions. Compare the following sen-
tences :

(a) Robert ran to the house.

(b) Robert ran past the house.

In these sentences "to" and "past" show the
relation of the house to Robert's running. Together
vdth the word "house" and its modifier "the," they
form modifying phrases.

A word thus used with a substantive to show its
relation to some other word is called a Preposition.

A phrase consisting of a preposition with a sub-
stantive is called a Prepositional Phrase.

Definition. A preposition is a word used to show

I40

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

the relation between a substantive and some other
word.

Definition. A prepositional phrase is a phrase
consisting of a preposition and a substantive.

The substantive used with a preposition is often called
the Object of the Preposition.i Most frequently, but not
alwa)rs, it is a noun or a pronoun (236).

Other examples are :

The book

Prepositional Phrases

used as

Adjectives

Preposition

SubstaDtive

the table.

the desk.

under

the seat.

behind

the door.

the window.

beneath

the cover.

the top.

below

the dictionary.

beside

the lamp.

between

us.

,near

you.

behind

me.

The preceding prepositional phrases modify a
noim; the following modify a verb or an adjective:

^The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature disapproves
of the use of this term.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 141

Prepositional Phrases

used as

Adverbs

Preposition

Substantive

r to

the village.

across

the fields.

around

the lake.

down

the street.

We walked "

over

the bridge.

past

the schoolhouse.

through

the tunnel.

during

the storm.

with

him.

after

sunset.

It is long

before

dark.

, till

morning.

Though the word "preposition" means "placed
before," a preposition and its substantive are often
separated by other words; and sometimes the
preposition comes after the substantive: as,

He came with at least two thousand men.

The top of yon high eastern hill.

What are you looking at ? (i.e., At what are you looking?)

Exercise 102

Mention as many Prepositions as you can that might
be used in each of the following blanks:

1. Clouds us. 6. Asleep sermon.

2. Men wealth. 7. Talk nothing.

3. Train Boston. 8. Dust door.

4. Born Savannah. 9. Travel England.

5. Tom went the house. 10. The ship sailed the

river.

142 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 103

Make a list of the Prepositions and their sub^
stantives in the following selection:

THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY

The day broke — ^the day which was to decide the fate of
India. At sunrise the army of the Nabob, pouring through
many openings of the camp, began to move toward the grove
where the English lay. Forty thousand infantry, armed with
firelocks, pikes, swords, bows and arrows, covered the plain.
They were accompanied by fifty pieces of ordnance of the
largest size, each tugged by a long team of white oxen, and
each pushed on from behind by an elephant. Some smaller
guns, under the direction of a few French auxiliaries, were
perhaps more formidable. The cavalry were fifteen thou-
sand. The force which Clive had to oppose to this great
multitude consisted of only three thousand men. * * *

The battle commenced with a cannonade, in which the
artillery of the Nabob did scarcely any execution, while the
few field pieces of the English produced great effect. Several
of the most distinguished officers in Surajah Dowlah's
ser^/ice felL Disorder began to spread through his ranks.
* * * Clive snatched the moment, and ordered his troops to
advance. The confused and dispirited multitude gave way
before the onset of disciplined valor. In an hour the forces
of SiurajahDowlah were dispersed, never to reassemble. * * *
With the loss of twenty-two soldiers killed and fifty wounded,
Clive had scattered an army of nearly sixty thousand men,
and subdued an empire larger and more populous than
Great Britain. — Macaulay: "Essay on Lord Clive."

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of prepositions
is needed, Exercises 8, ii, 13, 14, 15, 16, 41, 56, and 57 will be found
suitable.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 143

87. Conjunctions. Examine the following:

Compound Sentences

Connecting
Independent Clause Word Independent Clause

The wind blew, and the rain fell.

I ran fast, but I missed the train.

Complex Sentences

Connecting
Principal Clause Word Subordinate Clause

Rob will go if Ethel goes.

He says that he will come.

Guy is older than Lewis [is old].

Connected Phrases

Connecting
Word

By the people and for the people.

Connected Words

Connecting
Word

Sink or swim.

From this it appears that some words are used
as mere connectives, joining together words, phrases,
or clauses.

A word used to connect words or groups of words
is called a Conjunction.

Definition. A conjunction is a word used to
connect words or groups of words.

144 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

88. Position of Conjunctions. When subordinate
clauses come first, they carry with them the con-
jimction which connects them with the principal
clause : as,

Conjunction Subordinate Clause Principal Clause

"% ^

If Ethel goes Rob will go.

Unless it rains we shall all go.

That he will come is certain.

Whether father can come is doubtful.

Conjimctions sometimes occur in pairs, the first
of the pair being not really a connective, but a sort
of forerunner annoimcing that something will pres-
ently be added: as,

EUher you or I must go.

It is neither useful nor omanaental.

The king was weak hoth in body and in mind.

Sometimes a conjimction is used at the beginning
of a separate sentence, or even a paragraph, to
connect it with what precedes.

Prepositions connect words, but not in the same way as
conjunctions. When words are connected by prepositions,
one always bears a modifying relation to the other.

Exercise 104

Fill the blanks with appropriate Conjunctions:

1. Poor honest.

2. Beautiful good.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 145

3. I wonder he will come.

4. I cannot deny he means well.

5. We cannot go we finish our task.

6. He was punished he was guilty.

7. I could buy borrow it.

8. He was punished he was not guilty.

9. I do not know 1 shall walk ride.

10. She could dance sing, she played

the piano.

Exercise 105

Make a list of the Conjunctions in the following
sentences:

1. She was good as she was fair.

2. Handsome is as handsome does.

3. Neither a borrower nor a lender be.

4. Better one bird in hand than ten in the wood.

5. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind.

6. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in
no other.

7. So teach us to niunber our days, that we may apply
our hearts imto wisdom.

' 8. Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time; for
that is the stuff life is made of.

9. Mend your speech a little,
Lest it naay mar your fortunes.

10. O what a tangled web we weave.
When first we practice to deceive!

146 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 106

Use each of the following Conjunctions in a sen-
tence:

for since although because unless

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of conjunctions
is needed, Exercises 80 and 84 will be found suitable.

89. Interjections. Examine the use of the itali-
cized words :

Ouch! I cut myself.
Bravo! that was well done.

You observe that "Ouch!" and "Bravo!" form no
part of the accompanying sentences, but are out-
cries caused by sudden feeling.

A word used as an expression of sudden or strong
feeling, but not forming part of a sentence, is called
an Interjection.

Definition. An interjection is a word used to
express sudden or strong feeling.

Punctuation. An interjection should be followed
by an exclamation point (!).

Exercise 107

Make a list of the Interjections in the following
sentences:

1. Alas! she is ill.

2. Ah! there she comes.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 147

3. Lo! the room is empty.

4. Bosh! I don't believe it.

5. Oh! I have spilled my ink.

6. Tut, tut! that is not true.

7. Fie! a soldier, and afraid!

8. Pshaw! it has begun to rain.

9. The soldiers are coming. Hurrah!

10. Hark! was there ever so merry a note?

Exercise 108

Write five "sentences of your own containing Inter-
jections.

Exercise 109

(Review)

Tdl the part of speech of each word in the following
sentences:

Model for Written Exercise:
N. I Pro. I Adj. I V. I Adv. | Prep. | Conj. | Int.

1. Procrastination is the thief of time.

2. Custom reconciles us to everything.

3. The march of the hvunan mind is slow.

4. Patience is a necessary ingredient of genius.

5. Earth with her thousand voices praises God.

6. How blessings brighten as they take their flight.

7. Assassination has never changed the history of the
world.

8. Fine manners need the support of fine manners in
others.

9. Honor and shame from no condition rise;
Act well your part, there all the honor lies.

148 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

lo. When sorrows come, they come not single spies,
• But in battalions..

90« Caution* It must not be supposed that the
same word is always used as the same part of speech.
Examine, for instance, the use of "iron" in the
following sentences :

(a) Iron is heavy.

Q)) An iron kettle hung on the crane.

ic) Laimdresses iron clothes.

(d) An iron-hounA bucket hung in the well.

In (a) "iron" is a noim; in {b) it is an adjective;
in (c), a verb; in {d) it is used as an adverb. It is
clear, therefore, that the use of a word may vary,
requiring us to classify it sometimes as one part of
speech, sometimes as another.^

Exercise 110

Tell to what part of speech each word in italics be-
longSy according to its use in the sentence:

I. (a) The sun shines on rich and poor alike. Q)) He is
a rich man, but a poor scholar.

^The old notion that the classification of a word depends on its
inherent nature rather than on its use in a given sentence, and that
"once an adverb always an adverb," is rejected by all modem author-
ities, as may be seen by consulting any modern unabridged dictionary,
The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature says: "It is
recommended that words be never dealt with as isolated units, but
always in sentences. Many are, in fact, indeterminate when standing
alone. Thus the word 'enough,* so standing, does not show whether
it is adjective, or adverb, or substantive. It cannot be said that
'enough,' as a word, is any of these things; but a given 'enough' in
a scDtence quite clearly shows its character." — Report^ p. 13.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 149

2. (a) Farewell! (b) Adieu! (c) Where thou art gone
adieus and farewells are a sound unknown.

3. (a) One swallow does not make a summer, (b) This
is a summer hotel.

4. (a) I am very glad to see you. (b) You are the very
man I was looking for. (c) ^^Very** is a common word.

5. I was about to send for you, for I have something
to show you.

6. (a) Farmers till the soil, (b) Look in the till, (c)
Stay /i/^ the bell rings, (d) Stay /i/^ the next train.

7. (a) Do not lose a second, (b) I second your motion.
(^) She won second prize. (J) You come second,

8. (a) We walked a^ow/. (^) What did you talk about?
(c) We talked about golf, (d) About a dozen girls were there.

9. (a) -4// men are mortal, (b) He staked his all on the
turn of a card, (c) All agreed with me. (d) That is all right.

10. (a) Take ei/Aer road. (^) He must either work or
starve, (c) Ask ef/Aer of them.

11. (a) He Tarn fast, (b) He was Sifast runner, (c) They
/a^/ twice in a week. ((/) This fast lasted forty days.

12. (a) I ^fi&e him. (b) I shall not look upon his like
again, (c) He looks like his grandfather, (d) He talks KJfe«
his mother, (e) Like causes produce like results. (/) Like
produces like. ,

13. (a) We want more men. (b) Fear no more the heat
of the sun.

14. (a) He laughs too much, (b) Much learning hath
made you mad. (c) She made much of him.

15. (a) It was his only chance, (b) He went only to the
corner, (c) ^^Oniy^ should come next to the expression that
it modifies.

ISO THE PARTS OF SPEECH

i6. (a) Turn aver a new leaf, (b) We came over the moun-
tain, (c) We must have walked over six miles.

17. (a) Since that time I have not seen her. (b) Since
it is raining, we will not go. (c) I have not seen her since.

18. (a) The house still stands, (b) All is stUl. (c) A stUl
small voice, (d) Alcohol is made in a still, (e) With his
name the mothers still their babes.

19. (a) That bird is a thrush, (b) I thought /Aa/ it was a
r©bin. (c) A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. (d) Thai
you have wronged me doth appear in this, (e) Thai is what
I meant.

20. (a) We read for a wMe. (^) We read while they
played tennis, (c) They wMe away the time with books
and games.

Exercise 111

1. Use each of the following words first c^ a Noun,
then as a Verb:

bark comb guide pen talk

2. Use each of the following words first as a Noun,
then as an Adjective:

autumn cloth dinner silver tin

3. Use each of the following words first as an
Adjective^ then as a Verb:

clean left lower smooth thin

4. Use ectch of the following words first cls a Noun,
then as an Adjective, then as a Verb:

cahn light roast sound spring

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 151

5. Use each of the following words first as an
Adjectivey then as an Adverb^ then as a Verb:

better long

6. Use each of the following words first as an Ad-
verby then as a Preposition:

above behind down on up

7. Use each of the following words first as an
Adverby then as a Preposition, then as a Conjunction:

after before

91. Summary of the Parts of Speech. The

classes of words described in this chapter comprise
all the words of our language. They may be sum-
marized as follows:

Nouns. Words used as names.

Pronouns. Words used instead of noims.

Adjectives. Words used to modify nouns or
pronoims.

Adverbs. Words used to modify verbs, adjec-
tives or other adverbs.

Verbs. Words used to assert.

Prepositions. Words used to show the relation
between a substantive and some other word.

Conjunctions. Words used to connect words or
groups of words.

Interjections. Words used to express sudden or
strong feeling.

152 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Substantive is a common term for a noun, a pronoun,
and any other word used to denote something about which
the speaker is thinking (27).

Exercise 112

(Review)

Classify the parts of speech in the following sen-
tences:

Model for Written Exercise:
N. I Pro. I Adj. I V. I Adv. | Prep. | Conj. | Int.

1. Strike, in the name of Freedom!

2. Be just before you are generous.

3. Hats off! the flag is passing by.

4. Be silent when others are speaking.

5. A bad beginning makes a bad ending.

6. Health and cheerfulness make beauty.

7. A clear conscience is a coat of mail.

8. Much tongue and much judgment seldom go together.

9. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.

10. He who overlooks one crime invites the commission
of another.

II.

11. A drop of honey catches more flies than a hogshead
of vinegar.

12. He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that taketh
a city.

13. Eat at your own table as you would eat at the table
of a king.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 153

14. An intemperate, disorderly youth will bring to old
age a feeble and worn-out body.

15. A bitter jest, when it comes too near the truth, leaves
a sharp sting behind it.

16. Glad did he live, and. gladly die.
And he laid him down with a will.

17. O Solitude! where are the charms
That sages have seen in thy face?

18. And men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things.

19. How far that little candle throws his beams!
So shines a good deed in this naughty world!

20. Night drew her sable curtain down,
And pinned it with a star.

Exercise 113

(Review)

Classify the parts of speech in the following sen-
tences:

1. He who never relaxes into sportiveness is a wearisome
companion; but beware of him who jests at everything.

2. Garments will fall to pieces, jewels and gold will lose
something of their luster, but the fame that great poems
acquire will last through all time.

3. Yet I doubt not through the ages one increasing

purpose runs.
And the thoughts of men are widened with the proc-
ess of the suns.

154 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

4. Good name in man or woman, dear my lord.
Is the immediate jewel of their souls:

Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something,
nothing;

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thou-
sands:

But he that filches from me my good name,

Robs me of that which not enriches him,

And makes me poor indeed.

5. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood,

When fond recollection presents them to view!

The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-
wood,
And every loved spot which my infancy knew:

The wide-spreading pond, and the mill which stood
by it.
The bridge, and the rock where the cataract fell;

The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it.
And e'en the rude bucket which himg in the well.
The old oaken bucket, the iron-boimd bucket.
The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well.

92. Verbals. Two important kinds of words
are formed from verbs and retain some of the
characteristics of verbs; but they differ from other
verb-forms in being used as adjectives or nouns.
They are called Verbals, and they are of two kinds :
(i) adjective-verbals, called Participles; and (2)
noun-verbals, called Infinitives. These words are
forms of the verb and are described in detail in
Part II ; but they are so peculiar in their nature and
frequent in their occurrence that they require brief
preliminary description now.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 155

93. Participles. Examine the italicized word in
the following sentence:

The girl reading a book is my cousin.

In this sentence "reading" expresses action and
has an object, "book"; but it is lacking in the power
to assert. "The girl reading a book" is not a sen-
tence (17) . Therefore "reading" is not a verb, though
it is formed from the verb read by adding "iwg."
Its use is that of an adjective modifying "girl."

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature
of an adjective is called a Participle.

Definition. A participle is a form of the verb
that partakes of the nature of an adjective.

The distinguishing marks of a participle are these :
(i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or may
take, the same complements and modifiers as the
verb from which it is derived; (3) it is used as an
adjective.

Participles are of two principal kinds:

1. The Present Participle, formed from the verb
by adding "-iwg"; as, ^^ Hearing a noise, I went to
the window."

2. The Past Participle, usually formed from the
verb by adding "ed," "d," "t," "en," or "n": as,
"The plant called nightshade is poisonous" ; " Hidden
by the leaves, the nest escaped notice."

From simple participles are derived Phrasal Participles:
as, "Florence, having said good-bye, turned to go."

XS^ THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 114

Make a list of the Participles in the following
sentences, and tell what they modify:

1. I saw a child sitting by the road and weeping.

2. I went up to her, distressed at her grief, and hoping
I could help her.

3. Sweeping and eddying through the bridge rose the
belated tide.

4. Peter the Hermit, dressed in a coarse robe, and bearing
in his hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy and France,
preaching.

5. Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime
Advancing, sowed the earth with Orient pearl.

6. The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.

7. Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose,
Flushing his brow.

8. Mom,

Waked by the circling hours, with rosy hand
Unbarred the gates of light.

9. I have heard the mavis smging

Its love song to the morn;
I've seen the dewdrop clinging
To the rose just newly bom.

10. By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April's breeze imfurled.
Here once the embattled farmers stood,
And fired the shot heard roimd the world.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 157

94. Infinitives. Examine the italicized words in
the following sentence :

To climb 1 ^ 1 .„ . ,

Cr h' I ^^^^P ^^^ reqmres a slow pace.

Here "climb" and "climbing" are forms of the
verb "climb," and have a direct object, "hills"; but
they are lacking in the power to assert. They are
used to name an action, and therefore they partake
of the nature of nouns.

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature
of anoim is called an Infinitive.

Definition. An infinitive is a form of the verb
that partakes of the nature of a noun.

The distinguishing marks of an infinitive are
these: (i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes,
or may take, the same complements and modifiers
as the verb from which it is derived; (3) it is
used as a noim.

Infinitives are of two principal kinds:

1. The Root Infinitive, so called because it is the
same as the root, or simple form of the verb: as,
"To obey is better than sacrifice"; "You need not
wait.'^^ It is often called simply the Infinitive.

2. The Infinitive in -ing, often called the Gerund:'

as, ^^ Splitting rails is hard work"; "The morning was
spent in writing letters."

1 Gerund b the term recommended by the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen-
clature, July, 1913. When this term is used, the Root Infinitive is called simply the
Infinitive.

158 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

The Root Infinitive is commonly, but not always, pre-
ceded by "to."

Sometimes this "to" forms with the infinitive an adjective
phrase or an adverbial phrase: as, "Water to drink'' ; "He
came to see us."

From simple infinitives are derived Phrasal Infinitives:
as, "I expect to be writing letters."

Exercise 115

Make a list of the Infinitives and Gerunds in the
following sentences^ and tell of each whether it is used
as subject^ complement of the verb, or part of a modi-
fying phrase :

1. To see is to believe.

2. Always take time to do your best.

3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

4. One can show his moral courage by daring to do right.

5. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being
eminent.

6. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to
do, chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages
princes' palaces.

7. Of all those arts in which the wise excel
Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well.

8. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray.

9. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power.
By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour;
Far other aims his heart had learned to prize,
More skilled to raise the 'WTetched than to rise.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 159

10. Why so pale and wan, fond lover?
Prithee, why so pale?
Will, when looking well can't move her,
Looking ill prevail?
Prithee, why so pale?

95. Caution. Not all words ending in *'-ing" are
participles or gerunds. Examine, for instance, the
italicized words in the following sentences;

(i) The child slept during all the noise.

(2) Nothing daunted, he began again.

(3) There is something in the wind.

In (i) the word ending in "-ing" is a preposition.
In (2) it has the force of an adverb, modifying the
participle "daimted." In (3) it is a noim derived,
not from a verb, but from the vague noim ^'thing."

The italicized words in the following sentences are to be
classed as nouns:

(i) This constant climbing of steep hills takes my breath.

(2) Spelling is harder for some persons than for others.

In (i) "climbing'' is derived from a verb, and so far re-
sembles a gerund; but it differs from a gerund in having
completely lost its verbal force, for it is modified by ad-
jectives instead of by adverbs, and instead of taking a direct
object like the verb from which it is derived, it is followed
by a prepositional phrase.

In (2) "spelling" is merely the name of something.

In "Good spelling is easier for some than for others,"
"spelling" is a noun, because modified by an adjective, "good."

In ^^ Spelling long words is easier for some than for others,"
"spelling" is a gerund, because it has a direct object, "words."

i6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 116

Tdl the classification of each italicized word in the
following sentences:

1. A boy came sauntering along.

2. I found her reading "Idyls of the King."

3. According to my watch, it is just ten o'clock.

4. His mother is opposed to his playing football.

5. Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work.

6. Feeling sure that he would come, I waited longer.

7. Unless the kettle boiling be,
Filling the teapot spoils the tea.

8. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his
starving tenants.

9. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses, thanking
God for their beauty.

10. In the battle off Cape Vincent, Nelson gave orders
for boarding the "San Josef," exclaiming^ "Westminster
Abbey, or victory!"

Exercise 117

(Review)

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following
sentences:

1. If all the year were playing holidays.
To sport would be as tedious as to work.

2. Imperial Caesar, dead and turned to clay,
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away.

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH i6i

3. Heaven's ebon vault
Studded with stars unutterably bright,

Through which^ the moon's unclouded grandeur roUsi
Seems like* a canopy which love has spread
To curtain her sleeping world.

4. I walk imseen

On the dry smooth-shaven green,
To behold the wandering moon
Riding near her highest noon,
Like one that had been led astray
Through the heaven's wide pathless way:
And oft, as if her head she bowed.
Stooping through a fleecy cloud.

5. There was a jolly miller once,

Lived on the river Dee;
He worked and sang from mom till night.

No lark more blithe than he.
And this the burden of his song

Forever used to be, —
I care for nobody, no, not I,

For nobody cares for me.

^Pronoun, antecedent " vault."

*AdjectiTe. subjective complement: "Heaven's vault seems like [to]."

CHAPTER n

OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, AND COMPOUND WORDS

Before proceeding with the detailed study of the
parts of speech, we must learn to distinguish those
changes in the form of a word that are made by
Inflection, Derivation, and the formation of Com-
pound Words.

96. Inflection. Examine the following groups of
words:

Noun Pronoun Adjective Verb

man he sweet sing

man's his sweeter sings

men him sweetest sang

In each of these groups we recognize the same
word imder different forms. These variations in
form denote slight modifications in the meaning and
use of the word, but the noim remains a noirn, the
verb a verb. Moreover, most other words of the
same class, as "boy," "they,'' "sick," "hear,"
undergo similar alterations in form.

A change in the form of a word to show a slight
change in its meaning or use is called Inflection.

Definition. Inflection is a change in the form of

a word to show a change in it« meaning or use.

162

OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, COMPOUND WORDS 163

Exercise 118

Mention as many Inflections as you can of the
following words:

child heavy they teeth do

97. Derivation. Compare the following words:

true

truly

truth

truthful

untruth

untruthfulness

Here we have six words diflferent in meaning and
use. Some belong to one part of speech, others to
another. But the last five words are clearly formed
from the first by attaching a Prefitx ("un-") or a
Suffix ("Jy," "-th," "-ful," "-ness"), or both.

The formation of a word from another word by
attaching a prefix or a suflSx, or by changing a vowel,
is called Derivation. The new word is called a
Derivative.

Definition. A derivative is a word formed from
another word or root by attaching a prefix or a
suffix, or by changing a vowel.

Examples of derivation by change of vowel are;
bless, bliss; feed, food; gild, gold; heat, hot; pride,
proud; raise, rise; tale, tdl.

z64 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 119

Mention Derivatives formed from the following
words:

child friend give man wise

98. Compound Words. Examine the following

words :

black
board
blackboard

Here we have three different words, entirely
distinct in meaning and use; but the last is formed
by combining the first two.

A new word formed by combining two words is
called a Compound word.

Definition. A compound word is a word formed
by combining two or more words.

The parts of a compoimd word are often connected
with a hyphen: as, "half -penny," "son-in-law."
Whether to use the hyphen or not cannot be de-
cided by rule. It is for the most part a question of
usage, which must be learned from observation or
from the dictionary.

Exercise 120

Make a list of five Compound Words j determining
from a dictionary how they shotdd be written.

CHAPTER III

OF NOUNS

A Noun is a word used as a name (80).

I. CLASSIFICATION

99. Different Kinds of Nouns. Examine the
names in the following sentence:

The crew of the battleship Maine were under perfect
discipline.

"Battleship" and "Maine'* both name the same
object, but in different ways. "Battleship" is the
name of any one of a class of ships resembling one
another in structure and purpose; "Maine" is the
name of a particular battleship. "Crew" is the
name of a body of men considered collectively.
"Discipline" is the name of a condition.

100. Proper Nouns. The noim "Maine," in our
illustrative sentence, is the name of a particular
battleship.

A noim used as the name of some particular
object, to distinguish that object from others of its
kind, is called a Proper Noun.

i6s

i66 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Definition. A proper noun is the name of a
particular person or thing.

Other examples of proper noims are:

Lincoln Monday Nashville Oregon Pike's Peak

Proper noxms, when written, always begin with
capital letters; so also do many words derived from
them: as, America, American, Americanism.

101. Common Nouns. The noxm "battleship"
is a name common to all ships of the same class.

A noun that is common or applicable to all objects
of the same class is called a Common Noun.

Definition. A common noxm is a name common
to all things of the same kind.

Other examples of common nouns are:

city day man mountain state

Common nouns, when written, begin with smaU
letters.

The words father, mother j uncle j aunt, cousin, and others
like them, are sometimes common noims, and sometimes
proper nouns. They are proper nouns when they are the
customary names, or part of the customary names, v^ed in
addressing particular persons. Thus:

My father is calling me.

I am coming, Father.

I have an uncle.

OF NOUNS 167

I call him Uncle Henry.

My dear cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to call

her "Jennie").

My dear Cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to
call her "Cousin Jennie").

Exercise 121

Write two Proper Nouns suggested by each of the
following Common Nouns:

city dog ocean river state

Exercise 122

Give the Common Nouns that are applicable to the
following individual objects:

Donald England Friday Helen July

102. Collective Notms. The common noun
"crew" is applied to a body of men considered
together.

A noun used as the name of a number of objects
taken together is called a Collective Noun.

Definition. A collective noim is the name of a
niunber of objects taken together.

Other examples of collective nouns are:

army (a collection of soldiers)
fleet (a collection of vessels)
herd (a collection of animals)

x6S THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 123

What objects are grouped together by the following
Collective Nouns?

audience flock squadron swarm team

Exercise 124

(Review)

Write the Proper Nouns in Exercise 41 in one
column, the Common Nouns in another column, and
the Collective Nouns in a third.

n. Gender

103. Gender Defined. Observe the distinction
between the following nouns:

lion lioness

Both nouns name animals of the same class; but
one is the name of the male animal, the other of the
female. This distinction is indicated by the in-
flection *'-ess." The distinction between the objects
themselves is called Sex. The distinction between
their names is called Gender.

A word denoting a male object is in the Masculine
Gender.

A word denoting a female object is in the Fem-
inine Gender.

OF NOUNS 169

A word denoting an object that has no sex is in
the Neuter Gender (Latin, '^neither")*

Definition. Gender is a classification of nouns
and pronouns according to the sex of the objects
for which they stand.

Definition. The masculine gender denotes a
male object.

Definition. The feminine gender denotes a
female object.

Definition. The neuter gender denotes an ob-
ject that has no sex.

Words like "friend," "chUd," "thief," "bird," which
apply without change to either male or female objects, are
masculine or feminine according to the sex of the particular
object spoken of .^

104. Wa]rs of Denoting Gender. Compare the
following pairs of words:

Masculine

Feminine

waiter

waitress

man-servant

maid-servant

brother

sister

You observe from this that there are three ways
of distinguishing gender:

^The old term. Co m mon Gender ^ is not used by the best recent writers on Eoglbh
grammar.

17©

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

1. By a Feminine Suffix, usiially ^^-ess." In the
following list note the occasional changes in the
body of the word :

Masculine

Feminine

Masculine

Feminine

abbot

abbess

host

hostess

actor

actress

hunter

huntress

administrator

administratrix

idolater

idolatress

adventurer

adventuress

Jew

Jewess

baron

baroness

lad

lass

benefactor

benefactress

lion

lioness

count

countess

marquis

marchioness

czax

czarina

master

mistress

deacon
duke

deaconess
duchess

patron
preceptor

patroness
preceptress

emperor

enchanter

executor

empress

enchantress

executrix

prince

prophet

shepherd

princess

prophetess

shepherdess

giant
god
heir
hero

giantess
goddess
heiress
heroine

sorcerer
sultan
tiger
waiter

sorceress
sultana
tigress
waitress

2. By a Compound Word Denoting Gender. The

following are important examples:

Masculine Feminine

bull-elephant cow-elephant

c.^ ck-sparrow hen-sparrow

he-bear she-bear

Masculine Feminine

he-goat she-goat

man-servant maid-servant

3. By Separate Words. These are to be learned
from conversation and reading. The following is a
list of some that are often confounded or otherwise
misused:

OF NOUNS

Masculine

Feminine Masculine

Feminine

bachelor

buck

bullock

drake

gander

spinster, maid

doe

heifer

duck

goose

monk
ram
stag
wizard

nun
ewe
hind
witch

Exercise 125

171

Write the Masculine Nouns in one column, the
Feminine in another column, and the Neuter in a
third.

DR. PRIMROSE AND THE FACE WASH

As we expected our landlord the next day, my wife went
to make the venison pastry. Moses sat reading, while I
taught the little ones. My daughters seemed equally busy
with the rest; and I observed them for a good while cooking
something over the fire. I at first supposed they were as-
sisting their mother, but little Dick informed me, in a
whisper, that they were making a wash for the face. Washes
of all kinds I had a natural antipathy to, for I knew that,
instead of mending the complexion, they spoil it. I there-
fore approached my chair by sly degrees to the fire, and
grasping the poker, as if it wanted mending, seemingly by
accident overturned the whole composition, and it was too
late to begin another. — Goldsmith: "The Vicar of Wakefield.'^

Exercise 126^

1. Write the Feminine word corresponding to:

abbot bachelor buck count duke sultan monk stag
actor bullock czar drake hero marquis ram tiger

^To the Teacher, (i) and (2) should be used as a dictation exer>
dse. Other words may be added from the foregoing lists at discretion.

172 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

2. Write the Masculine word corresponding to:

doe duck ewe goose heifer hind spinster witch

3. Write sentences illtistrating the correct use of
such of the foregoing words as the teacher may select^
consulting a dictionary for their meaning.

m. Number

105. Ntunber Defined. Examine the difference
between the words in the following pairs:

book fox ox man

books foxe^ oxen men

The first word of each pair suggests a single
object; the second word suggests more than one.
In the first three pairs the difference in naeaning is
brought about by the addition of a suflSx; in the
last, by an internal change in the word.

The form of a word that denotes one object is
called the Singular Number.

The form of a word that denotes more than one
object is called the Plural Number.

Definition. The singular nmnber is the form of a
word that denotes one object.

Definition. The plural nmnber is the form of a
word that denotes more than one object.

OF NOUNS 173

Number has an important influence on pronoims (136)-
verbs (189), and the adjectives "this" and "that" (156).
For example, we say:

This bell was ringing, but it has stopped
These bells were ringing, but they have stopped.

106. Formation of the Plural. Most nouns form
the plural by adding ^^s" to the singular: as, book,
books. The following variations from this regular
rule are important:

1. "-es." When the singular ends in a sound that does
not unite with "s" alone, "es" is added, forming an additional
syllable: as, fox, foxes.

2. Plural of Nouns Ending in "o." If the final "o" is
preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by
adding "s": as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded
by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the
plural by adding "es": as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes.
The following common words, however, still form the plural
by adding "s" alone.

baiijo

chromo

halo

octavo

solo

burro

contralto

junto

piano

stiletto

canto

duodecimo

lasso

proviso

torso

casino

dynamo

memento

quarto

tyro

3. Plural of Nouns Ending in "y." If the "y" is pre-
' ceded by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys.

If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to
I "i" and "es" is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies;
dty, cities.

4. Plural of Nouns Ending in "f." The following nouns
: ending with the sound of "f" change "f" or "fe" to "v" and

add"es":

beef

elf

knife

Ufe

self

shelf

wife

calf

half

leaf

loaf

sheaf

thief

wolf

174 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

5. Survivals of Ancient Plurals. In Old English there
were other ways of forming the plural, traces of which
survive:

(i) Plurals in **-en." These were once in very common
use. The only surviving examples are: oxen, brethren,
children. Kine (cows) is used in poetry.

(2) Plurals by Inward Change. Of this method the
surviving examples are: loot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese;
louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; woman, worften.

6. Plural of Proper Nouns. Proper nouns, when made
plural, are not changed internally: as, Henry, Henrys;
Nero, Neros.

Proper names preceded by titles, as "Mr. Smith," "Miss
Smith," "Colonel Smith," are treated in two different ways.
We say "the Mr. Smiths," "the Mrs. Smiths," "the Miss
Smiths," "the Colonel Smiths" ; but we also say "the Messrs.
Smith," "the Misses Smith," and "the Colonels Smith."

7. Plural of Compound Nouns. Most compound nouns
form the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to
the fundamental part of the word, i.e., to the part which is
described by the rest of the phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts;
court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp.
When no single word is fundamental, as in "forget-me-not,"
the sign of the plural is put at the end: as, forget-me-nots.
Words like "spoonful," the compound nature of which has
been almost forgotten, also take the sign of the plural at the
end: as, spoonfuls, cupfuls. "Man-servant," "woman-
servant," and "knight-templar" often add the plural sign
to both words: as, men-servants.

Caution. "Brahman," "Mussulman," "Ottoman," and
"talisman" are not compoimds of "man." They resemble
"Gierman" and "Norman," and form the plural by adding
"s": as, Mussulmans, talismans.

OF NOUNS 1 75

8. Letters, Figures, and other Symbols are made plural
by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s) : as, "Tbere are more
e's than a^s in this word;" "Dot your i's and cross your Z'^."

9. Unchanged Plurals. Some names o:> animals are the
same in both singular and plural. The important examples
are: cod, deer, grouse, sheep, salmon, swine, trout.

Some nouns of number and measure may be used in a
plural sense without change of form. Important examples
are: "Two brace of ducks"; "She bought three dozen^-^;
"His years are four score^*; "Ten head of cattle"; "Two
hundredweight of iron"; "Three pair of horses"; "Twelve
yoke of oxen." In these expressions the plural meaning is
sufficiently indicated by the preceding numeral.

Exercise 127

(Dictation Exercise)
Write the Plural of the following nouns:

(i) Deer, trout, grouse.

(2) Apple, peach, rose, box, bush, grass.

(3) Ox, child, tooth, goose, mouse, woman.

(4) Mary, George, Harry, Miss Clark, Mr. Brown, Dr.
Young.

(5) German, Dutchman, Frenchman, Brahman, Mormon.
Mussulman, Ottoman, talisman.

(6) Ally, chimney, fairy, baby, mystery, turkey, body,
journey.

(7) Chief, calf, dwarf, fife, elf, grief, gulf, half, hoof,
knife, leaf, loaf, roof, sheaf, shelf, strife, thief, wife, wolf.

(8) Buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, banjo,
dynamo, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, negro, hero,
chromo.

(9) Man-of-war, goose-quill, spoonful, commander-in-
chief, major-general, man-servant.

176 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

(lo) Court-yard, court-martial, father-in-law, step-son,
/orget-me-not, bill-of-fare, looker-on, knight-errant.

107. Two Plurals. We say "There are big fish
in the lake," using fish in a plural, collective sense;
and we also speak of "The story of the three ^5to/'
having in mind a story about three separate fishes.
From this it appears that some nouns have two plu-
rals, which diflFer in meaning. The following is a list :

Singular. Plural.

brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society),

cloth cloths (of different kinds), clothes (garments),

die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for pla^).

fish fishes (separate objects), fish (collective),

genius geniuses (persons of great ability), genii (spirits),

index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra),

penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money),

shot shots (discharges), shot (balls).

Exercise 128

Distinguish in meaning between:

1. How many shot (shots) did you coimt?

2. The story tells of two genii (geniuses).

3. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence).

4. He showed me some new cloths (clothes).

5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold dust.

6. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren).

7. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets.

8. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill.

9. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in
this new algebra.

10. These fish (fishes) are good to eat.

OF NOUNS

177

108. Foreign Plurals. Some nouns of foreign
origin have peculiar foreign plurals. In the following
list of such nouns, when two plural forms are given
for the same noun, the English plural is preferable:

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

alumna
(feminine

alumnae

)

formula

r formulas
\ formulae

alumnus

ahimni

' geniuses (persons

(masculine)

genius

of great ability)

analysis

analyses

^ genii (spirits)

animalculum animalcula

genus ("class") genera

antithesis

antitheses

bacterium

bacteria

hypothesis

hypotheses

bandit

I bandits
I banditti

J f memorandums
memorandum < .

\ memoranda

oasis

oases

Hpiiii

f beaus
I beaux

parenthesis

\ parentheses

L^cau.

phenomenon phenomena

cherub

' cherubs
^ cherubim

seraph

f seraphs
\ seraphim

crisis

crises

stratmn

strata

curriculmn

curricula

tableau

tableaux

datmn

data

Exe

thesis

rcise 129

theses

(Dictai

tion Exercise)

I. Write the Plural c

!/•••

(i) alumna

(8) da

,tum

(15) parenthesis

(2) analysis

\ (9) fo]

rmula

(16) phenomenon

(3) bandit

(10) ge

nius

(17) seraph

(4) beau

(11) ge

nus

(18) stratum

(5) cherub

(12) h>

pothesis

(19) synopsis

(6) crisis

(13) oa

sis

(20) tableau

(7) curriculum (14) ne

bula

(2:

:) thesis

I7S THE PARTS OF SPEECH

2. Write the Singular of:

(i) alumni

(2) bacteria

(3) cherubim

(4) curricula

(s) data

(6) genera

(7) oases

(8) phenomena

(9) strata

(10) theses

(11) alumnae

(12) parentheses

Exercise 130

Write sentences containing the Plural of the fol-
lowing words, first constdting a dictionary for their
meaning:

(i) aUy

(2) canto

(3) crisis

(4) curriculum

(5) elf

(6) genus

(7) hypothesis

(8) memento

(9) phenomenon

(10) solo

(11) talisman

(12) aide-de-camp*

109. Divided Usage. Some singular nouns look
like plurals, e.g., alms; and some plural noims are
singular in sense, e.g., measles. In regard to such
nouns custom is divided, treating them at one time
as singulars and at another as plurals.

The following are generally treated as singular:
amends, gallows, news, the United States, mathematics,
optics, and other words in "-ics," except athletics,
which is generally plural.

The following are generally treated as plural:
ashes, assets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, oats, pincers,
proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tongs, trousers,
victuMs, vitals.

^To the Teacher. This exercise may be extended at discretion by
selecting additional words from the lists in Sections 106-108.

OF NOUNS 179

For further information on cases of doubtful

usage a large dictionary must be consulted.

Exercise 131

Which of the italicized forms is preferable?

(i) The dregs was (were) bitter.

(2) The assets of the company is (are) $223,000.

(3) Please pour this (these) suds on the rose bed.

(4) Where did you get this (these) scissors?

(5) Why was this (were these) ashes diunped here?

(6) In many schools athletics is (are) carried too far.

(7) His riches has (have) taken to itself (themselves) wings.

(8) Mathematics is (are) harder for some persons than
for others.

(9) The proceeds of the lecture was (were) given to the
Orphan Asylum.

(10) The United States had informed Spain of its (their)
intention regarding Cuba.

Exercise 132

To the Teacher. In doing this exercise the fact that the number of
verbs and pronouns has not yet been treated in this book will cause no
diflficulty to pupils who can speak English.

Write sentences illustrating the number of the fol-
lowing nouns:

news oats shears tongs trousers

IV. CASE

110. Case Defined. In the sentence "John has
given Henry Annie's pencil/' each of the four nouns

i8o THE PARTS OF SPEECH

bears a peculiar relation to other words. Three of
them are related to the verb: "John," as subject,
"pencil," as direct object, "Henry," as indirect
object. "Annie's" is related to "pencil" by showing
ownership — a, relation indicated by the sufl&x "'s."

The form or use of a noun or pronoun that shows
its relation to other words is called Case.

A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb
is said to be in the Nominative Case.

The form of a noun or pronoun that shows pos-
session is called the Possessive Case.'

A noun or pronoun used as the direct object of a
verb is said to be in the Objective Case.

In Old English the relations of subject, direct object,
indirect object, and ownership, were often indicated, as in
Latin and Greek, by special forms of the noun, called Cases.
After the Norman Conquest these forms fell into disuse,
and noims in modern English retain only one relic of them,
namely, the Possessive (Annie' j). With the single ex-
ception of the "'s" denoting ownership or possession, the
relation of a noun to the other parts of a sentence is now
shown mainly by its position; and English nouns have only
two forms, i.e.y the Common form, and the Possessive
(or Genitive).

But though most of the forms have disappeared, the
names of some of them have been retained to denote uses
which the forms used to show. For example, in the sentence
"John has given Henry Annie's pencil," we still say "John"
is in the Nominative case, referring to its use as subject of
the verb; and we might well say that "Henry" is in the

iThe Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends that
G^miHve be substituted ior Possessive, because (i) the case has other uses than to denote
possession, and (3) "Genitive" is the term used in other languages. This substitution
can be easily made by teacher and pupil if the school authorities desire. See the noEt
footnote.

OF NOUNS i»i

Dative case^ and "pencil" in the Aceusative. But since
the dative and accusative cases are now never distinct in
form, English grammars have long merged them into one
case called the Objective.

The English nominative and objective cases, being always
alike in nouns, might easily be merged into one if it were
not for the fact that in pronoims these cases have distinct
forms: as, / help him, and he helps me.^

The fimction of case forms may be well illustrated by
reference to a line from Gray^s "Elegy": "And all the air a
solemn stillness holds." Critics cannot agree as to whether
"air" or "stillness" is the subject of this sentence; that is,
whether the poet meant that the air contained stillness or
that stillness held fast the air. In Latin or Greek there
could be no doubt, because the form of the words would
show which was subject and which object.

Definition. Case is the foma or use of a noun or
pronoun that shows its relation to other words.

Definition. The nominative case of a noun or
pronoun is its form or use as the subject of a verb.

Definition. The possessive case of a noun or
pronoun is the form used to denote possession.

^The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomendatttre suggests that
Common and Genitive be the only terms used for case-forms in English nouns; but lor
pronouns it suggests that the only case-forms recognized be the Nominady* and
AeeusatlTe-DatiTe. "His," "her," *'its," "my." "whose," and other similar forms, are
all to be called PossesBiYo Pronoons or Possessiy* AdjactiTvs. For casenises, both
nouns and pionouns, the Report recommends the terms NomlnatiT*, AccuaatiT*. Datiro
and GenitiT*.

How far this proposed nomenclature will be acceptable to our schools instead of the
tcadkional NoaiuiatiTe» PoaMssiT*. and Obj«cUye is uncertain; therefore* for the pres-
ent, it seems best to adhere to the terms familiar to all English grammarians, with the
possible and easy exception of genitive for possessive.

The author cordially approves the following "two recommendations" of the Jwat
Committee ("Report," p. 14):

"First. That attention be directed, in the ordinary class-room wo^ of analysis, upon
thib function of a given noun or pronoun in the sentence rather than upon its case-foraiu

"Second. That the names used for case-functions in English work be: nominaiive,
accusoHve, dative, genitive."

^ These two recommendations can be easfly adopted by users of this book by tubotittt-
ting for ObjoctiTe the terms AcctiaatiTe or DmArm. as the case may be.

i82 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Definition. The objective case of a noun or
pronoun is its form or use as the direct object of a
verb/

Exercise 133

Tdl the Case of each noun in Eocercise i*j.

111. Form of the Possessive Case. In the

singular niunber the possessive case of nouns is
formed, as a rule, by adding an apostrophe and
*'s" Cs): as, "The hoy's coat."

Often the pronunciation of the added "s" forms a new
syllable. If this additional syllable makes an unpleasant
sound, the "s" is. omitted, but the apostrophe is retained:
as, "For goodness^ sake." If the "s" is sounded, it is always
written; and if it is written, it should be pronounced in
reading. The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in
such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. Whenever there is
doubt it is well to add the "s" : as, " Horace's odes,' ^-^ ^Charles's
ball," ''Dickens's 'David Copperfield.' "

In the plural number, when the plural already
ends in "s," the possessive case is formed by adding
an apostrophe alone (') : as, ^^ Boys' shoes."

The plural possessive of those few noims whose plural
does not end in "s" is formed, as in the singular ntunber,
by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "Men's shoes."

The possessive case of compound noims and expressions
used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper
sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as,
"That is my sister-in-law's pony"; "This Is the Prince of
Wales's palace."

mother uses of the Objective Case will be treated later.

OF NOUNS 183

When two or more persons possess a thing in common,
the sign of the possessive is attached to the last name only:
as, "Joh^ 3^^d Mary's home."

Separate ownership is indicated by adding the sign of
the possessive to each name: as, "Alice's and Jessie's "dresses."

In forming the possessive of "anybody else" and "who
else" usage is somewhat divided and inconsistent. The
weight of good usage seems to incline to "anybody else's";
but, on the other hand, we usually say "whose else."

Exercise 134

Write opposite each other the Possessive CasCj
singular and plural^ of the following nouns:

I. King

6. Mouse

II. Monkey

16. Deer

2. Dog

7. Actor

12. Prince

17. Goose

3- I^ay

8. Eagle

13. Princess

18. Man

4. Wolf

9. Horse

14. Wife

19. Ox

5. Fox

10. Lady

15. Child

20. Woman

Exercise 135

Use the Possessive Case^ singular and plural ^ ef the
following nounSy in sentences of your own:

I. Calf 2. Farmer 3. Fairy 4. Witness 5. Thief

Exercise 136

Write the Possessive Case of:

1. James 6. Harper & Brothers

2. Dickens 7. His sister Mary

3. Newson & Co. 8. Charles

4. Father-in-law 9. Man-of-war

5. Frederick the Great 10. Henry the Eighth

184 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

112. Declension. We are now prepared to draw
up a scheme of the inflection of any English noun
for number and case : thus,

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom, — Obj.: man men dog dogs

Possessive: man's men's dog's dogs'

The inflection of words for niunber and case,
arranged in order, is called Declension.

When we give the declension of a word we are
said to Decline it.

Definition. Declension is the orderly arrange-
ment of the inflection of words for nimaber and case.

Exercise 137

Decline the following nouns/

calf

deer

Henry

lady

mouse

child

fox

James

monkey

V. Construction

113. Construction Defined. In the study of
sentences, the most important question about a
noun, or any other part of speech, is its relation to
the other words of the sentence, i.e., its use or
fimction in the sentence.

The relation of a word to the rest of the sentence
is called its Construction (Latin, ^'putting to-
gether").

^o the Teacher. Since the only difficulty in declining nouns lies in
tlM writini;; of the possessive case, the declension of nouns should always
he a written exercise.

OF NOUNS i8s

Definition. The construction of a word is its
relation to the rest of the sentence.

114. Uses of the Nominative Case. A noun is
in the nominative case when it is used in any of the
following constructions:

1. Subject: The (f (13^ is past and gone.

2. Predicate noun {Subjective compkment): To-morrow .is
the appointed day.

3. Vocative (Address): Come, day, and chase the shadows
of the night.

4. ExclamaHon: O happy day! The battle's won.

5. Nominative absolute (223): Day breaking in the east,
we started.

115. Uses of the Objective Case. A noun is in
the objective case when it is used in any of the
following constructions :

1. Direct object: I've lost a day,

2. Objective complement: God called the light day.

3. With a preposition: Rome was not built in a day.

4. Adverbial: We waited a day,

5. Indirect object: Give every day its task. (Dative Case.)

6. Secondary object (53): Mother taught me the days
and months.

7. Retained object (188): He was given a day to
think it over.

8. Subject of infinitive (230) : I believed the day to be
favorable.

9. Predicate noun after an infinitive: I know this to be the
appointed day.

x86 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 138

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the
Constri4€tion and Case of each noun:

Models. See Pages 62-64, 69, 83-85, and 87.

1. Habit is second nature.

2. Every day brings its work.

3. Have two strings to your bow.

4. Example is better than precept.

5. Modesty is the beauty of women.

6. Immodest words admit of no defense.

7. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.

8. Himger drives the wolf from the woods.

9. In every country the sun riseth in the morning.
10. In the mouth of a bad dog falls often a good bone.

Exercise 139

Make a list of the nouns in the following sentences ^
and tell the Construction and Case of each noun:

1. In each duty lies a beauty,

If your eyes you do not shut,
Just as surely and securely,
As a kernel in a nut.

2. Constant sunshine, howe'er welcome,

Ne^er would ripen fruit or flower;

Giant oaks owe half their greatness

To the scathing tempest's power.

OF NOUNS 187

3. O columbine! open your folded wrapper,

Where two twin turtle-doves dwell.
O cuckoo-pint! toll me the purple clapper
That hangs in your clear green bell.

4. The star-buds blossom in the night,
And love the moon's calm, tender Ught;
But daisies bloom out in the day.
And watch the strong sun on his way.

5. When Washington declined a military escort on the
occasion of his inauguration (1789), he said, "I require no
guard but the affections of the people."

Exercise 140

(Review)
Tell the Construction of each noun in Exercise 13.

Exercise 141

Write ten sentences illustrating* ten ways in which
nouns may be used. (It is not necessary to use the
same noun.)

116. Uses of the Possessive Case. The possessive
case is used to denote two relations:

1. Possession: John's cap is gray.

2. Connection: One day's march brought them to the sea.

117. Possessive vs. Preposition. It is some-
times a question whether to use the possessive case
or a phrase beginning with "of," i.e., whether to say

i88 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

^^Arnold^s treason^' or ^'the treason of AmoW^ The
tendency of the best modem usage is to confine the
possessive case to nouns denoting living beings, and
with them to use it only in instances of actual or
imagined possession: as, "Arnold's sword," "the
treason of Arnold.'' Yet some short phrases, like
"a week's wages," "a day's march," "a dollar's
worth," "at death's door," "for pity's sake," are
supported by the best usage.

With pronouns still greater latitude is allowed. No one
hesitates to write "on our account," "in my absence," "to
their credit," "for my sake," "in his defense."

The possessive case and a phrase introduced by
*^of " are not always exact equivalents. For instance,
John's story" means a story told by John; but a
story of John" means a story about John.

Exercise 142

Use one of the nouns in each of the following pairs
in the Possessive Case^ or use the preposition "(j/""
with it. Give the reason for your choice :

1. Witness, testimony.

Model. "Testimony of the witness," because the witness
is not thought of as possessing the testimony.

2. Horse, hoof. 7. Paris, siege.

3. Delmonico, restaurant. 8. Book, cover.

4. Charles the Second, reign. 9. Princess,eveninggowns.

5. Henry the Eighth, wives. 10. Spain, navy.

6. Teacher, advice. 11. Napoleon, banishment.

OF NOUNS 189

12. Napoleon, camp-chest. 17. Cat, claws.

13. Demosthenes, orations. 18. Enemy, repulse.

14. Webster, orations. 19. Major Andr6, capture.

15. Gimpowder, invention. 20. Moimtain, top.

16. General, horse. 21. Summer, end.

Exercise 143

Distinguish in meaning between the following:

1. Mother's love. Love of mother.

2. A sister's care. Care of a sister.

3. Ethel's drawing. A drawing of EtheL

4. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's t03rs.

5. Admiral Dewey's reception. The reception of Ad-
miral Dewey.

118. Double Possessive. The sentence, "Let
me tell you a story of Doctor Brown's,'^ contains
a double possessive ("of Doctor Brown's''), in which
we use both the possessive case, after the manner of
Old English, and the preposition "of," after the
manner of Norman-French. Though this double
possessive cannot be logically justified, it is never-
theless recognized by the best writers as good Eng-
lish. Moreover, it is often convenient; as when it
enables us to distinguish between "a story of Doctor
Brown'' and "a story of Doctor Brown's." Other
examples are:

That boy of yours.

A friend of my brother^ s,

O speak good of the Lord, all ye works of his* ,

ipo THE PARTS OF SPEECH

119. Case in Apposition. Nouns in apposition
are said to be in the same case. But when the nouns
are in the possessive, the sign of possession is usually
attached only to one of them: as, "Jack the Giant
Killer's boots." (iii).

120. Substitutes for Nouns. Words or groups of
words that are not commonly classed as noims are
often used in the constructions of nouns, as follows :

(i) Pronoun: I see him,

(2) Adjective: I did my best.

(3) Adverb: Now is the accepted time.

(4) Phrase: ^^Ay^ ay, sirH burst from a thousand throats,
(s) Clause: What you want is not here.

(6) Infinitive: To delay is fatal.

121. How to Parse Nouns. When we describe
a word as it stands in a sentence, we are said to
Parse it. To parse a word we must give a'description
of its class, form, and use.

To parse a noxm completely we must give its:

(i) Class.

(2) Number.

(3) Gender.

(4) Case.

(5) Construction.

Of these, number and construction are by far the
'most unportant.'

^To the Teacher. The Report of the Joint Committee on Gram-
matical Nomenclature recommends (p. 13) that in the ordinary work

OF NOUNS I9t

Model. Maud Muller on a summer's day

Raked the meadows sweet with hay.

1. Maud Midler is a proper noim, singular number,
feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb
"raked."

2. Summer's is a common noun, singular nimiber, neuter
gender, possessive case, modif)dng "day."

3. Day is a common noim, singular number, neuter gender,
objective case, used with the preposition "on."

4. Meadows is a common noun, plural number, neuter
gender, objective case, direct object of "raked."

5. Hay is a common noun, singular number, neuter
gender, objective case, used with the preposition "with."

Exercise 144

Parse the Nouns in the following sentences:

1. My sister is five years old.

2. Grumbling makes the loaf no larger.

3. Let us make these enemies friends.

4. The crowd gave the rescuer three cheers.

5. Words and feathers the wind carries away.

6. Help which is long on the road is no help.

7. Little troubles are great to little people.

8. Talking comes by nature; silence by wisdom.

9. The strength of a chain is its weakest link.
10. Kill not the goose that lays the golden eggs.

of sentence-analysis, the classification of nouns as common, proper,
collective, masculine, feminine, and neuter be not dwelt on, lest grammar
work become mechanical and wear3dng. In the following exercises tibe
teacher should tell| the pupils whether complete parsing is desired, or
only number, case, and construction.

T9a THE PARTS OF SPEECH

11. A reckless boy gives his parents great anxiety.

12. The Constitution has made America a great nation.

13. One good mother is worth a hundred schoohnasters.

14. The High School boys made William captain of the
team.

1 5 . Merry i s the feast-making till we come to the reckoning.

16. Patience is a flower that grows not in every one^s
garden.

17. The farmer's wife brought berries to town three times
a week.

18. Whether the pitcher strikes the stone or the stone
the pitcher, it is bad for the pitcher.

19. His harp, his sole remaining joy,
Was carried by an orphan boy.

20. Listen, my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere.

Exercise 145

Parse the Nouns in the following selections:

1. The morn was fair, the skies were dear,

No breath came o'er the sea.

2. From the treetops sang the bluebird.
Sang the bluebird, the Owaissa.

3. Give me that man

That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him
In my heart's core; aye, in my heart of hearts.

OF NOUNS 193

4. About two hundred yards from the school a small
brook crossed the road and ran through a thickly wooded
glen, where it tumbled noisily over rocks till it entered a
beautiful lake, known by its Indian name, Wononsco.

5. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as
years of matrimony rolled on; a tart temper never mellows
with age, and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that
grows keener with constant use.

Exercise 146^

Parse the Nouns in the following selection:

A FAREWELL.

My fairest child, I have no song to give you;

No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray;
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you

For every day.

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever;

Do noble things, not dream them, all day long;
And so make life, death, and that vast forever

One grand sweet song. — Charles Kingsley.

*To the Teacher. Easy exercises in the parsing of nouns are to be
found in the paragraphs of any reader or piece of literature; and such
exercises should be used freely, partly to secure additional drill, and
partly to show the pupil that grammar is not a detached study.

The passages in Exercises 146 and 147 show an unusual variety of
noun constructions and present interesting exercises to bright or
advanced pupils. For some pupils they may prove too hard. Tedium
may be avoided by requiring pupils to give only the number^ case and
construction of each noun.

194 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 147^

(For Advanced Pupils)
Parse the Nouns in the following selection:

EVENING IN PARADISE.

Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray
Had in her sober livery all things clad;
Silence accompanied; for beast and bird,
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests,
Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale;
She all night long her amorous descant sung:
. Silence was pleased. Now glowed the firmament
With living sapphires; Hesperus, that led
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon,
Rising in clouded majesty, at length
Apparent queen, imveiled her peerless light.
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw;
When Adam thus to Eve: "Fair consort, the hom:
Of night, and all things now retired to rest,
Mind us of like repose, since God hath set
Labor and rest, as day and night, to men
Successive; and the timely dew of sleep.
Now falling with soft slumberous weight, inclines
Our eyelids. Other creatures all day long
Rove idle, imemployed, and less need rest;
Man hath his daily work of body or mind
Appointed, which declares his dignity.
And the regard of Heaven on all his ways;
While other animals imactive range.
And of their doings God takes no accoimt."

— Milton: "Paradise Lost."

^See footnote to preceiimg page.

CHAPTER IV

OF PRONOUNS

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun (8i).

The Antecedent of a pronoun is the word or group
)f words for which it stands (8i).

The antecedent of a pronoim is often not
expressed.

Many pronouns have either a substantive or an adjective
use. In their substantive use they are to be called Pronouns.
In their adjective use they are to be called Pronominal
Adjectives: as,

Pronoun: This is my hat.

Pronominal Adjective: This hat is mine.

The classification of wy, /Ay, our, your, his, her, its, their^
whose presents a difficulty. Historically, the first four are
adjectives, the others genitive case-forms. In modem
English, this distinction does not appear. Since many of
these words always modify nouns, many gram m arians call
them Possessive Adjectives. But his and whose are often
used substantively, and the related words mine, thine, ours,
yours, hers and theirs are never adjectives in ordinary modem
English. Therefore it seems equally appropriate to call
them all Pronouns, in the possessive (or genitive) case. See
Sections no, footnote, and 133.

I. Personal Pronouns

122. Person. In the sentence, "I, John, was in
the isle Patmos," "John" names the speaker; in

195

196 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

"John, please come here,'* "John" names the person
spoken to; in "John has come," "John" names the
person spoken of.

The (Mstinction between words as denoting the
person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of, is called
Person.

A noxm or pronoim that denotes the person speak-
ing is in the First Person.

A noxm or pronoim that denotes the person or
thing spoken to is in the Second Person.

A noim or pronoim that denotes a person or thing
spoken of is in the Third Person.

Definition. Person is the distinction between
words as denoting the person speaking, the person
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

Nouns do not change in form to denote person; and most
noims are in the third person. The distinction of Person has
importance only in connection with pronouns and verbs.

123. Personal Pronotms Defined. Examine the
pronouns in the following sentence:

I have lost my pencil; please lend me yours till you need
it yourself*

"I," "my," and "me," stand for the person
speaking, and cannot be used to refer to the person
spoken to or spoken of. "You," "yours," and
"yourself" stand only for the person spoken to.
''It" is used only for a thing spoken of.

OF PRONOUNS 197

Pronouns that distinguish between the person
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or
thing spoken of are called Personal Pronouns.

Definition. A personal pronoun is a pronoim
that denotes the person speaking, the person spoken
to, or the person or thing spoken of.

Personal pronouns are so called, not because they stand
for persons, but because they mark granunatical person (122).

Exercise 148

Fill the following blanks with Personal Pronouns
and tell what they stand for:

1. Barbara has lost needle.

2. was sewing with

3. Perhaps has fallen under chair.

4. Let all look under chairs.

5. has thread in .

Exercise 149

Make a list of the Personal Pronouns in Exercises
22 and 36, and tell of each whether it is of the First,
Secondy or Third Person.

Exercise 150

Write ten sentences tising at least ten of the foU
lowing Personal Pronouns:

us
he
their

our

mme

her

you

your

she

they

ours

them

him

his

hers

igS THE PARTS OF SPEECH

124. Personal Pronouns of the First Person.

Fill the blanks with personal pronouns representing
(i) a boy speaking, (2) a girl speaking, and note the
differences, if there are any:

know Mary. Mary knows . Mary is

cousin. The pen she is using is .

Fill each of the following blanks with a pronoun
representing the speaker and some others;

love Carlo. Carlo loves . Carlo is dog.

Yes, he is .

You observe that personal pronouns of the first
person differ according to their number and case.

Tabulating the forms used in filling the blanks,
we find that the personal pronoxm of the first
person is thus declined:

Singular

Plural

Nominative:^

Possessive:^

my, mine

our, oiu-s

Objective:

Some of these forms are really fragments of different words,
and not true inflections. But they serve the same purpose as
inflections.

"I'' is always written as a capital letter.

The plural forms represent, not two or more speakers, but
the speaker and others for whom he speaks. Sometimes they

iSee pages iHo and z8z, footnotes.

OF PRONOUNS 199

are used by an editor or a sovereign to refer to himself alone:
as,

Editor: We are sure we voice the sentiments of the people.
ELiNG Duncan: This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air

Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself
Unto our gentle senses.
This is called the "editorial" or "majestic" use of we.

12s. Uses of the Nominative Fonns. The nom-
inative forms of personal pronoims are used mainly
in the following constructions:

1. Siibject of a verb: as, "/ am young"; "TT^are coming";
*'He fell"; ''She laughed"; ''They Kve in New Orleans."

2. Predicate pronoun {Subjective complement): as, "Is it
ir "It was not we''; "Was it her "I think it was she'';
"No, it was they,"

3. Vocative: as, "O thou who hearest prayer."

4. Nominative absolute: as, "He being there, we said
nothing about it" (223).

126^ Uses of the Objective Forms. The objective
forms of the personal pronouns are used mainly in
the following constructions:

1. Direct object: as, "Help uSy O Lord."

2. Indirect object: as, "Give we your hand." (Dative Case.)

3. With a preposition: as, "Show it to them,"

4. Subject of infinitive: as, "Did you see him fall?" (230).

5. Predicate pronoun after an infinitive: as, "He knew it
to be me".

Exclamations. — ^In exclamations either the nominative or
the objective is used: asy "O, unhappy I!" "O, wretAed me!"

200 • THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Note. In the middle of the sixteenth century the dis-
tinction between the nominative and the objective began
to break down, and "me," "thee," "us," "you," "him,"
"her," and "them" were often treated as nominatives. In
the case of "ye" and "you" this confusion became perma-
nently established in the language, "you" being now the regu-
lar form for both nominative and objective. In the other
pronouns the original distinction between the cases gradually
reasserted itself, and is, perhaps, more strongly insisted on
now than at any period since the sixteenth century.*

The case of "you" and "it," which have the same form for
both nominative and objective, must be determined from the
construction.

Exercise 151

(For Dictation)

Decline the Personal Pronoun of the First Person,
singular and plural.

Exercise 152*

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blank,
and give tho reason for your choice. If in doubt,
consult Sections 125 and 126.

/, me.

1. Who will go? .

2. He is taller than .

^T. R. Lounsbury: History of the English Language.

*To the Teacher. In order that both eye and ear may be trained
in correct forms of expression, it is a good plan, after the blanks in this
and similar exercises have been filled, to write on the board such sen-
tences as give pupils trouble, and to have them read aloud again and
again.

Another helpful exercise to the same end is to let pupils repeat rap-
idly such forms as "It is I," "It is not we," "Is it I?" etc., using in
succession the afi&rmative, interrogative, and negative forms of the verb.

OF PRONOUNS 20I

3. He is not so old as .

4. Wait for Helen and •

5. She knew that it was .

6. She will come, and too.

7. You and will go together.

8. May Annie and go home?

9. It was that gave the alarm.

0. If you were , would you go?

1. Will you go with John and ?

2. Jessie gave Roy and a kitten.

3. Yes, you and were both invited.

4. It makes no difference to you or .

5. She invited you and to go driving.

6. Everyone is going except you and .

7. The kite was made for Harry and .

:8. Father expects you or to meet him.

[9. Between you and , he is losing his mind.

20. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girb, among

the rest.

Exercise 153

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blanks
and give the reason for your choice:

We, us.
I. He knew it was .

2. boys are going swinuning.

3. They play golf more than .

4. They knew that as well as .

5. Everybody was late except .

6. Our parents are wiser than .

7. The Smiths are going, and too.

202 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

8. The Browns, as well as , are invited.

9. That is new doctrine among Americans.

10. He took a picture of girls sitting in the boat.

Exercise 154

Write five sentences containing different forms of
the Personal Pronouns of the First Person.

127. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person.

In the following selections examine the pronouns
that stand for the persons spoken to:

BibUcal

Singular. Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth; and let
thy heart cheer thee in the days of thy youth, and walk in
the ways of thine heart, and in the sight of thine eyes: but
know thou, that for all these things God will bring thee into
judgment.

Plural, Ye stand this day all of you before the Lord your
God. . . . Blessed are ye poor, for yours is the kingdom of
God.

Poetic

Singular. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — ^rolll
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain;
Man marks the earth with ruin — ^his control
Stops with the shore; — ^upon the watery plain
The wrecks are all thy deed.
« « « «

Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow, —
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.

Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again.

OF PRONOUNS 203

Ordinary Prose

Singular. Young gentleman, your spirit is too bold for
your years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires
greater strength than yours.

Plural. Come early, girls; and if you feel like it, bring
3;owr mandolins; I want to hear 3;(7W play.

These selections show that the pronouns used to
represent the person spoken to differ according to
the character of the language employed. In the
Biblical and poetic passages they are, for the
singular^ "thou," "thy," "thine," and "thee," ac-
cording to the case; for the plural, "ye," "your,"
"yours," and "you." In the ordinary prose pas-
sages they are, for both singular and plural, "you,"
"your," and "yours." Tabulating these forms, we
may say that the personal pronoim of the second
person is thus declined:

Biblical and Poetic Ordinary

Singular Plural Singular and Plural

Nominative: thou ye you

Possessive: thy, thine your, yours your, yours

Objective: thee you you

The forms marked '^Biblical and Poetic" were once the
ordinary forms. In course of time, however, a peculiar
distinction grew up between the singular and the plural
forms. The singular forms were used in the language of
afiectionate intimacy or superiority; the language of
politeness or respect employed the plural forms. This dis-
tinction became stronger and stronger, until now "thou,"

304 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

"thy,'* "thine," and "thee" are no longer used in ordinary
conversation, except by members of the Society of Friends.
"Ye" has been displaced by "you" through a confusion of
nominative and objective (126, Note),

Since "you," which is now the conmion pronoim of address,
is really a plural word, it takes a plural verb when it is a
subject, even though only one person is addressed: as,
"You were mistaken, Edith" (not "You W(w").

Exercise 155

(For Dictation)

Decline the Personal Pronoun of the Second Person
in (i) the ordinary form; (2) the Biblical and Poetic
form.

Exercise 156

Write five sentences containing forms of the Per-
sonal Pronoun of the Second Person used in ordinary
discourse.

128. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.
Fill the blanks with personal pronouns representing
(i) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl spoken of, (3) a tree

spoken of:

■

is ten years old. I do not know height. I often

go to see

Fill the blank in the following sentence with a
pronoim referring to (i) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl
spoken of:

This book is

OF PRONOUNS

305

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with
pronouns representing (i) two or more boys spoken
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of, (3) two or more
trees spoken of:

axe each ten years old. I do not know heights.

I often go to see

Fill the blank in the following sentence with a
pronoun referring to (i) two or more boys spoken
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of:

These books are

You observe that personal pronouns standing for
persons or things spoken of vary with gender, number,
and case. Tabulating the forms used in filling the
blanks, we find that the personal pronoims of the
third person are thus declined:

Masculine

Nominative: he
Possessive: his
Objective: him

Singulair-

Feminine

she

her, hers

her

Neuter

its

^Plural--

AU Genders

they
their, theirs
them

Exercise 157

(For Dictation)

Decline the Personal Pronouns of the Third Person
in all genders, and both numbers.

2o6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 158

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blanks
and give the reason for your choice:

Hcy hitn,

1. I knew it was .

2. I saw John and ^e

3. Was it ?

4. It must have been .

5. that is idle, reprove.

6. His sister is darker than .

7. If I were , I wovddn't go.

8. Whom can I trust, if not ?

9. and James played together.

10. What were you and talking about?

11. Was it who objected to our going?

12. To William and belongs all the credit.

13. It makes no difference to either you or

14. I shook hands with all, among the rest.

15. Not many could have played as well as

16. Have you ever seen Fred and together?

17. What else can you expect from such as ?

18. There isn't much difference between you and .

19. who can answer this question may do so.

20. that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple.

Exercise 159

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blanks
and give the reason for your choice:

She, her,

1. I am stronger than ,

2. It was or her sister.

OF PRONOUNS 207

3. I wouldn't go if I were .

4. and Constance sang a duet.

5. Was it that came yesterday?

6. When will you and come again?

7. Father told you and to stay here.

8. Grace and met at dancing school.

9. I invited them all, among the rest.

10. With Edith and 1 have no trouble.

11. Very few girls can play as well as .

12. I supposed the tall, stately lady was —

13. What is the trouble between you and ?

14. Everybody came except and her brother.

15. Have you ever seen Sarah and together?

Exercise 160

Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blanks
^and give the reason for your choice:

They, them,

1. It was .

2. It must have been .

3. I never saw Guy and together.

4. that talk must stay after school.

5. that talk I will keep after school.

6. None so blind as that will not see.

7. Their opponents were heavier than - —

8. It makes no difference to either you or .

9. It could not have been , for were at home.

10. Few school-teachers could have done as well as —

2o8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 161

Write ten sentences containing (liferent forms of
the Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.

129. How to Parse Pronouns. To parse a pro-
noun one must give its —

(i) Class.

(f) Antecedent (if it has one).

(3) Person.

(4) Number.

(5) Gender.

(6) Case.

(7) Construction.

Model. I saw him yesterday.

1. / is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number,
masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of
the verb saw,

2. Him IS a personal pronoun, third person, singular
number, masculine gender, objective case, object of the
verb saw.

Exercise 162

Parse each Person^ Pronoun in Exercise 22; in
Exercise 36; in Exercise 74.

130. **It" as Impersonal Subject. Examine the
following sentences:

It rains.

It is snowing.

It is growing dark.

OF PRONOUNS 209

If we try to find the subjects of these sentences
by asking "What rains?" "What is snowing?"
"What is growing dark?" the only answer is "It."
But "it" does not here denote any person or thing.
Therefore it is called an Impersonal Subject, and
the sentence is an Impersonal Sentence.

Exercise 163

Write five sentences of your own containing Irrtr
personal Subjects.

131. "It" Expletive. Compare the following sen-
tences :

(a) To find fault is easy,
b) It is easy to find fault.

In meaning these sentences are exactly alike,^
but they differ in form. The first sentence begins
with the subject, "To find fault," which is followed
by the predicate, "is easy." The second sentence
begins with "it," followed immediately by the
predicate, which in turn is followed by the subject.
In such sentences the introductory word "it" adds
nothing to the meaning, and is commonly called
an Expletive (Latin, "filling up").

The effect of the second form is to shift the emphasis
from the predicate to the subject. The sentence tells us, not
so much that something is easy, as that what is easy is to
findfatdt. Other examples are: "/Hs doubtful whether he
will come.". "// is certain that the sun spins like a top."

2IO THE PARTS OF SPEECH

In such sentences, as in all sentences, the subject is in-
variably the answer to the question formed by putting
"who" or "what" before the predicate; as, in the sentences
above, "What is certain?" "What is doubtful?"

Exercise 164

Tell the Subject and the Predicate of each of the
^following sentences:

I. It is good to be here.

Model for Oral ExERasE. The subject is "to be
here"; the predicate is "is good." "It" is an expletive.

Model for Written Exercise:

S. P. E.

to be here is good It.

2. It does not pay to worry.

3. It is not all of life to live.

4. It will not suit us to go with you.

5. It is doubtful whether he can come.

6. It is not good to wake a sleeping hound.

7. It is certain that the sun spins Hke a top.

8. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord.

9. It was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not kill.
10. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.

II. It has been proved by actual measurement that the
thread forming the cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles
long.

OF PRONOUNS 211

Exercise 165

Write five sentiences that begin with "i/" Expletive y
and underline the predicate of each.

132. Other Special Uses of "It." The pronoun
it" has other special uses:

tiz*. yy

(i) As substitute for a group of words: as,

To cross the ocean was once a mighty undertaking; now
f^ is a mere pleasure trip.

I heard that he was coming, but I didn't believe it,

(2) As impersonal object: as,

They roughed it for two weeks.

Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it.

Exercise 166

Tell the use of the pronoun "i/" in each of the
following sentences:

1. I won't go, and that's an end of it,

2. It is excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is
tyrannous to use it like a giant.

3. There wa$ nothing for it but to return.

4. Come and trip it as you go.

5. He deserved his punishment, and he knew it,

6. Is it far to Chicago?

7. Low-born men like to lord it over their inferiors.

8. I will fight it out on this line if U takes all summer.

212 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

9. It is growing dark fast; it will soon strike six.
10. They footed it through the streets.

133. Uses of the Possessive Fonns. Each of the
personal pronouns except "he" and "it" has two
possessives in each number: namely, "my," "mine";
"our," "ours"; "thy," "thine"; "your," "yours";
"her," "hers"; "their," "theurs."

"My," "our," "thy," "your," "her," and "their"
are always followed by nouns indicating the thing
possessed: as, "My new sled."

In ordinary discourse "mine" and "thine," and
"ours," "yours," "hers," "theirs," are never fol-
lowed by nouns, but are always used substantively.

In Biblical and poetical language "mine" and "thine,
are used before nouns beginning with a vowel sound or "h":
as,

"If thine enemy hunger, feed him."
"Stretch forth thine hand."

Caution. — ^No apostrophe is used in writing the possessive
case of pronouns.

The possessive forms of pronouns are sometimes classified
separately as Possessive Pronouns or Possessive Adjectives-
Exercise 167

Write ten sentences cantaining ten different Possess-
ive forms of the Personal Pronouns.

134. Use of Gender Fonns. Pronouns should
be of the same gender and niunber as the nouns for

OF PRONOUNS 213

which they stand. Examine, •for instance, the

italicized nouns and pronouns in the following

selection :

King Midas at Breakfast.

King Midas took a nice little trgut on his plate, and, by
way of experiment, touched its tail with his finger. To his
horror, it was immediately transmuted from an admirably
fried brook trout into a goldfish, though not one of those
goldfishes which people often keep in glass* globes, as orna-
ments for the parlor. No; but it was really a metallic fish
and it looked as if it had been very cunningly made by the
nicest goldsmith in the world. Its little bones were now
golden wires; its fins and tail were thin plates of gold; and
there were the marks of the fork in it, and all the delicate,
frothy appearance of a nicely fried fish, exactly imitated in
metal.

"Well, this is a quandary!" thought he, leaning back in his
chair, and looking quite enviously at little Mary gold, who was
now eating her bread and milk with great satisfaction.

And truly, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all
your Kves? Here was Uterally the richest breakfast that could
be set before a king, and its very richness made it absolutely
good for nothing. The poorest laborer, sitting down to his
crust of bread and cup of water, was far better off than King
Midas, whose delicate food was really worth its weight in
gold. — Hawthorne: "A Wonder Book."

You observe that the Masculine Nouns, like "King
Midas," are referred to by "he," "his," or "him";
Feminine NounS| like "Marygold," by "she" or
"her"; Neuter Nouns, like "breakfast" and "food,"
by "it" or "its."

"Trout," which is either masculine or feminine,
is here referred to by "it" or "its," because the

214 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

object named is thought of as a mere thing, without
any reference to sex/

"Laborer," which is also either masculine or
feminme, but which denotes a person instead of a
thing, is referred to as "he," in accordance with an
estabKshed custom of our language when there is no
desire to emphasize distinctions pf sex. If the
author had thought distinctions of sex were here
important, he would have said, "The laborer sitting
down to his or her crust of bread."

The following uses of gender forms require special
care.

1. Words like troid and child, which apply to both male
and female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronoun
"it" and "its" when the object named is thought of as a
mere thing, the sex being unknown or unimportant: as,
"King Midas took a nice little troiU on his plate, and touched
Us tail with his finger" ; "The child reached out its little hands.

2. Words like laborer and person, which apply to both men
and women, are referred to by the masculine pronouns "he,"
"his," and "him" when there is no desire to emphasize dis-
tinctions of sex: as, "The laborer is worthy of his hire";
"Let every person do as he likes." In such cases "he," "his,"
and "him" stand for mankind in general, and include women
as well as men.

3. Sometimes animals are referred to by "he" or "she,"
even when no distinction of sex is intended. In such cases
the masculine pronoun is used if the speaker fancies the animal
to possess masculine qualities, such as strength, fierceness;
the feminine pronoim, if the speaker thinks the animal's

1 The old terrr Common Gender is not used by the more recent books on English
grammar.

OF PRONOUNS 2is

qualities are rather feminine, such as timidity, gentleness.
Examples are: "The tiger steals silently on his prey"; "The
hare ran for her life.'^

Exercise 168

Fill each blank in the following sentences ufith an
appropriate pronoun:

1. Can a leopard change spots?

2. Close in covert cowered the doe.

3. The ewe lamb bleated for mother.

4. The child was imconsdous of danger.

5. The heifer rubbed nose against the bars.

6. The goose had wandered from companions.

7. The hind knew the dogs to be -- — mortal enemies.

8. The duck was pluming feathers after swim.

9. Even a fool, when holdeth peace, is counted

wise.

10. If any person in the class needs a pencil, I will lend
mine.

135. Gender in Personification. Examine the
following sentence :

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees.

You observe that the writer refers to spring, which
has neither life nor sex, by a feminine pronoun.
The explanation is that he imagined spring as a
gracious goddess, and spoke accordingly. When we
thus sp)eak of an object without life as if it were a
person, we are said to Personify it.

21 6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Gender in personification is determined by the
same principle as in speaking of animals without
regard to sex: things remarkable for size, power,
strength, or other manly quahties, are referred to as
masculine; things remarkable for beauty, gentleness,
grace, or other womanly qualities, are referred to as
feminine. Other examples are:

(a) The sun now rose upon the right;
Out of the sea came he.

(b) Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl.

Exercise 169

Write five sentences in which the following things
are personified as Mascidine:

time war winter electricity the ocean

Exercise 170

Write five sentences in which the following things
are personified as Feminine:

a ship the earth night liberty peace

Exercise 171

(Review)

Fill each blank with a pronoun^ and give the reason
for its Gender:

1. Every author has faults.

2. A writer should be careful with pronouns.

OF PRONOUNS 217

3. Venice sat in state, throned on hundred isles.

4. A person who is rude in table manners will be

disliked.

S- Winter had bound the lakes and rivers fast in

icy grasp.

6. The mocking-bird shook from little throat floods

of delirious music.

7. The "Ol5mipic" is a huge steamer. is longer than

the "Great Eastern."

8. A calf can distinguish mother's lowing from that

of a hundred other cows.

9. When a cat comes near a light contracts and

elongates the pupils of eyes.

10. The polar bear suffers so much from heat that

cannot live long in warm climates;' therefore is seldom

seen in menageries.

136. Use of Number Forms. Difl&culties in the
use of the number forms of personal pronouns arise
mainly in connection with (i) collective noims (102)
and (2) such expressions as "anybody," "everybody,"
"each," "either," "neither," and "nobody."

A Collective Noun is referred to by a singular
pronoun when the collection of objects is thought of
as a single thing; by a plural pronoun when the
speaker is thinking of the separate objects in the
collection. For instance, we refer to a committee as
"it" when we think of it as a whole; when we think of
the mdividuals who compose it, we use the pronoun
"they." Similarly we say, "The jury has given its
verdict," thinking of it as a single body; "The jury
have gone to their homes," thinking of the members-

2i8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Anyhodyy everybodyy each^ eithcTy neither^ and
nobody, in spite of the comprehensive meaning of
some of them, are grammatically singular; and in
literary EngUsh they are referred to by singular
pronouns: as, "If anybody calls, ask him to wait."

If the writer considered reference to sex worth while, he*
would say, "ask him or her to wait." Ordinarily, however,
he would use "him" only, taking for granted the application
to women.

In colloquial English such expressions as "anybody,"
"everybody," "each," "either," etc., are referred to by the
genderless plurals "they," "their," "them": as, "If anybody
calls,ask them to wait." This usage is partly an attempt to
find a pronoim that will stand for both "he" and "she,"
and partly a reflection of the comprehensive meaning of
"anybody," "everybody," etc. It is shunned by those who
have an ear for grammatical accuracy.

Exercise 172

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:

1. Each must take turn.

2. Anyone can do this if tries.

3. Has everyone finished work?

4. Every girl can do this if tries.

5. Either Mary or Lizzie will lend you pencil.

6. The choir rendered most popular selection.

7. The audience was very enthusiastic in response.

8. Each pupil was requested to name favorite color.

iNote th« author's unoooscious use of ''he" t» refer to "writer," which here inchides
in its meaaing women as weU as men.

OF PRONOUNS 219

9. Probably everybody is eloquent at least once in

life.

10. Man after man passed, carrying golf clubs

with .

11. Each of the girls married well, at least in own

opinion.

12. Each of the children married well, at least in

own opinion.

13. The team was on own field and felt that

could not be defeated.

14. Whoever loves school should do best to keep

its school tone high.

15. Many a brave man met death in an obscure

moment of the war with Spain.

16. Whoso keepeth mouth and tongue, keepeth

soul from troubles,

17. The man and his wife were both there; but neither
would tell what had seen.*

18. The Turkish army left wounded on the field

because had no way of removing them.

19. The herd of cattle, pestered by black flies on way

across the plain, became immanageable.

20. Everybody believes the world is watching , but

is usually mistaken; for the world is generally doing

what is doing, namely, thinking of itself.

137. Compound Personal Pronouns. Examine
the form and uses of the italicized pronouns in the
following sentences :

(a) She herself told me.

(b) We saw the Queen herself.

^Observe that the meaning of this sentence changes according as we fill the blank with
"he," "she," or "they."

220 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

(J) They think too much of themselves.

You observe that "herself," "himself," and "them-
selves" are formed from personal pronouns by
adding the words "seK" or "selves"; and that they
are used (a, b) for emphasis, or (c, d) after a verb
or preposition to refer back to the subject of the verb.

A pronoim formed from a personal pronoun by
adding "self" or "selves" is called a Compound
Personal Pronoun.

A pronoun used for emphasis is called an Inten-
sive Pronoun.

A personal pronoim used after a verb or a preposi-
tion to refer back to the subject of the verb is called
a Reflexive Pronoun.

Definition. A compoimd personal pronoim is a
pronoun formed from a personal pronoim by adding
"self" or "selves."

Definition. An intensive pronoim is a pronoun
used for emphasis.

Definition. A reflexive pronoim is a personal
pronoun used after a verb or a preposition to refer
back to the subject of the verb.

The compoimd personal pronouns are:

myself

herself

ourself (editorial or majestic)

itself

thyself

ourselves

yourself

yourselves

himsdf

themselves

OF PRONOUNS 221

The place of a possessive is supplied by "my own,"
"your own," etc. : as, ".He keeps Aw (wew horse"; "He has a
house of his own,^^

In the last sentence the phrase "his own" is used as the
object of the preposition "of," like the possessive "mine"
in "He is a friend of mine" (133).

138. Uses of the Compound Personal Pronouns.

The compound personal pronoims are properly used
as follows:

1. As intensives: as, "I will do it myself"; "The great
globe itself shall dissolve"; "We saw the king himself"

2. As reflexives: as, "I cut myself" ; "We told him to give
himself plenty of time."

Besides these well-established uses, the compound personal
pronouns are sometimes employed as substitutes for simple
personal pronouns: as, "She invited Ethel and myself to go
driving." This usage is avoided by the most careful writers.

Sometimes, especially in poetry, a simple pronoun is used
reflexively: as, "Now I lay me down to sleep"; "He looked
about him"

Exercise 173

In the following sentences point out the Compound
Personal Pronoun^, and tell whether they are used
as Intensives or Reflexives:

1. I myself have seen him.

2. I think myself happy.

3. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.

4. Quit yourselves Uke men.

5. He will tell you himself.

222 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased.

7. Sinai itself trembled at the presence of God.

8. You have yourselves heard the report.

9. Why should you be so cruel to yourselves?
10. It is usually best to study by ourselves.

Exercise 174

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of each of
the compound personal pronouns as an Intensive.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the same
pronouns as Reilexives.

n. Demonstrative Pronouns

139. Demonstrative Pronouns Defined. Ex-
amine the italicized pronouns in the following sen-
tences :

This is my book; that is yours.
These are my books; those are yours.

In these sentences "this" (plural "these") and
"that" (plural "those") are used to point out certain
objects. Each is, in a way, equivalent to a gesture.
A pronoun used to point out is called a Demon-
strative Pronoun.

Definition. A demonstrative pronoim is a pro-
noim used to point out.

The only demonstrative pronouns are "this"
(plural "these") and "that" (plural "those").

OF PRONOUNS 223

140. Uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns.

"This" and "these" are used to indicate persons or
things near in space, time, or thought; "that" and
"those" indicate persons or things farther away:
as, ^^ These are my jewels"; "Our rivers are larger
than those of Europe."

When "this" and "that" are used with nouns they are
called Pronominal Adjectives: as, "TAw book is mine";
"T/wz^ word is hard to pronounce."

Exercise 175

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the
Demonstrative Pronouns, singular and plural.

Exercise 176

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the same
words as Pronominal Adjectives.

m. Interrogative Pronouns

141. Interrogative Pronouns Defined. Examine
the italicized pronouns in the following sentences:

Who is he? Whom did you see? Which is he?

Who is she? What is that? Which is yours?

Who are they? What are these? Which are yours?

Whose is tiiis? What do you want? Which do you prefer?

These pronouns, you observe, are questioning
words, "who," "whose," and "whom" asking for
names of persons, "what" asking for names of things.

224 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

and "which" asking for a selection from a group of
persons or things. Each stands for the noim or
pronoun that answers the question.

A pronoun used to ask a question is called an
Interrogative Pronoun.

Definition. An interrogative pronoim is a pro-
noun used to ask a question.

Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative
sentences, we find that the only interrogative pro-
noim which is inflected is "who," and that it is
declined as follows :

Singular and Plural

Nominative: who

Possessive: whose

Objective: whom

The interrogative "whether," meaning "which of the two,"
is no longer used as a pronoun, though it is found in the
English Bible: as, "Whether is easier?"

When "which" and "what" are used with nouns, they
are called Pronominal Adjectives: as, ^Whick book is yours?"
^What new trick is this?"

Exercise 177

Write five sentences illustrating the use of each of
the Interrogative Pronouns.

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the same
words as Pronominal Adjectives.

142. "Who" or ""^om." In spoken English
"whom," as an interrogative form, has for centuries

OF PRONOUNS 225

been largely given up by most persons as an un-
necessary and cumbersome inflection ; but in literary
English, and in the conversation of persons who
have a strong feeling for grammatical consistency,
"who" is now used only in nominative relations, and
"whom" in objective relations: as, ^Who is that?"
^Whom did you see?" "By whom was this written?"
^Whom are you making that sofa pillow for?"'

Exercise 178

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of
pronoun according to literary tisage^ and give the
reason for your choice:

3
4

5
6

13
14
IS

IT. R

Who, whom
is that?

do you mean?

have we here?

will you invite?

called to see you?

did you give it to?

do you think I am?

are you writing to?

were you talking to?

will you take with you?

I don't know to ask for.

was that speaking to you?

I do not know he has met.

did you say sat beside you?

do you think will be elected?

Lounsbury: " History of the English Language."

226 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

1 6. do you expect to call on next?

17. do you think it was that called?

18. I do not know will finish the work.

19. He is going to be married to I don't know .

20. should I meet yesterday but my old friend Jones!

143. Direct and Indirect Questions Distinguished.

Compare the following sentences:

(i) Maude asked, 'Who is hef"

(2) Maude asked who he was

(3) Barbara asked, 'Who wrote Uf"

(4) Barbara asked who wrote U,

In the first and third sentences Maude's and Bar-
bara's questions are quoted in the exact form in
which they were asked, and are followed by inter-
rogation points.

A question asked or quoted in the exact words of
the speaker is called a Direct Question.

In the second and fourth sentences the questions
are not directly asked or quoted, and are not followed
by interrogation marks. In the second sentence
even the words and order of the original question
are changed.

A question used as a subordinate clause and not
directly quoted is called an Indirect Question.

Definition. A direct question is a question asked
or quoted in the exact words of the speaker.

OF PRONOUNS 227

Definition, An indirect question is a question
used as a subordinate clause and not directly quoted.

Indirect questions depend on expressions implying inquiry,
doubty knowledge, ignorance, or the like: as, "Maude wondered
who he was"; "Maude discovered who he was"; "Maude did
not know who he was"; "Maude told us who he was." (The
direct question in Maude's mind was, "Who is he?")

Exercise 179

Copy the Questions in the following sentences and
tell whether they are Direct or Indirect:

I. He asked, "What time is it?"

Model for Written Exerctse. "What time is it?"
Direct.

2. He asked what it was.

3. Tell me what you are doing.

4. He asked, "Whither shall I fly?"

5. He asked whither he should fly.

6. They demanded, "Shall this man escape?"

7. TeU me, "Are you responsible for this?"

8. He doubted if John had broken the window.

9. "Did you catch your train?" he asked.

10. He inquired whether Catiline was at the meeting.

II. Job asks, "Can you draw out leviathan with a hook?"

Exercise 180

Write -five Direct Questions^ and then change them
into Indirect Questions.

228 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 181

(Review)
Parse all the Pronouns in the following sentences:

I. Who ran to help me when I fell?
Model. See page 208.

2. Whom did you see?

3. Whose dog is that?

4. What did you ask for?

' 5. Who do you think she is?

6. Whom were you speaking to?

7. What do you read, my lord?

8. What care I how fair she be?

9. What are the wild waves saying?
10. What is so rare as a day in Jime?

II. Which of the samples have you selected?

IV. Relative Pronouns

144. Relative Pronouns Defined. Compaxe the
following sentences :

{a) The man thinks the world turns round. The man is
giddy.

{b) The man thatb> giddy thinks the world turns round.

In (a) we have two separate sentences with "the
man'' as subject. In (6) the two sentences are con-
nected by the word "that," which is used instead of

OF PRONOUNS 220

the noun "man" as subject of the second sentence,
and also connects this sentence with "man'' in the
first sentence, as a modifying clause. In other
words, it is both pronoun and connective.

A pronoun which attaches, to its antecedent a
subordinate clause .is called a Relative Pronoun.

Definition. A relative pronoxm is a pronoun
which attaches to its antecedent a subordinate
clause.

A relative pronoun is so called because it relates directly
to an antecedent in the principal clause.

145. Relative Clauses Defined. A clause intro-
duced by a relative pronoxm is called a Relative
Clause.

Compare the relative clauses in the following
sentences :

(a) Water thai is stagnant is unwholesome.

{h) The water, which was beautifully clear, gently lapped
the side of the boat.

In each of these sentences the relative clause is
an adjective dates Cy modifying the noun "water";
but the adjective clauses iare of three different
kinds.

In the first sentence the relative clause, "that is
stagnant," limits or restricts the general meaning
of "water" to the particular sort that is in mind.

23© THE PARTS OF SPEECH

The clause cannot be removed without changing
the meaning of the sentence. It makes exactly-
known whOy whichy what, or what kind is meant by
the antecedent.

A relative clause which restricts the meaning of
the antecedent is called a Restrictive Relative
Clause/

In the second sentence the relative clause, "which
was beautifully clear," describes the water which
the speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the
meaning of the word "water." The clause might
be removed without injury to the sentence.

A relative clause which describes the antecedent
without restricting its meaning is called a Descrip-
tive Relative Clause.

In the third sentence the relative clause, "which
he drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the
word "water," but merely carries on the narrative,
like the second member of a compoimd sentence.
"Which" is, in fact, here equivalent to "and it," and
the relative clause, though subordinate in form, is
logically co-ordinate with the first clause.

A relative clause which neither restricts nor de-
scribes, but merely carries forward the narrative, is
called a Forward-moving Relative Clause.

Definition. A relative clause is a clause intro-
duced by a relative pronoun.

Definition. A restrictive relative clause is a

1 The Joint Committee on Uniform Grammatical Nomenclature suggests the term
Determinative, which may be readily substituted for Restrictive if the echool authorities
desire.

OF PRONOUNS 231

relative clause which restricts the meaning of the
antecedent.

Definition. A descriptive relative ' clause is a
relative clause which describes the antecedent with-
out restricting its meaning.

Definition. A forward-moving relative clause is a
relative clause which neither restricts nor describes,
but merely carries on the narrative.

146. Punctuation of Relative Clauses. Relative
clauses that are not essential to the meaning should
be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Essential relative clauses should not be separated
from the rest of the sentence by conmias.

Exercise 182

Point out the Relative Clauses in Exercises 43 and
49, and tell whether they are Restrictivey Descriptive^
or Forward-moving.

Exercise 183

Write a sentence containing a Restrictive relative
clause; two containing Descriptive relative clauses;
two containing Forward-moving relative clauses.

147. Relative Pronouns Distinguished. Examine
the forms of the relative pronoims in the following
sentences :

He prayeth best wlw loveth best.
Tk€ lady whe went out is my aimt

232 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

They who will not work must starve.

The boy whose manners you liked is my brother.

I know the person of whom you speak.

The letter which came this morning was from Ruth,
We played a new game, the name of which I forget.
I still have the letter which Ruth wrote last week.

This is the house that Jack built
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom.

What (i.e., That which) is done cannot be undone.
What (i.e., That which) you say is true.

From these examples we see that the ordinary
relative pronouns are "who," "which," "that," and
"what"; and that only "who" is declined, as follows:

Singular and Plural.
Nominative: who

Possessive: whose

Objective: whom

WhOy whosCy and whom axe used chiefly of persons,
but sometimes of animals: as, "He prayeth best
who loveth best"; "The robins have succeeded in
driving off the blue jays who used to build in our
pines."

"Whose" is occasionally used of things (149).

Which, as a relative pronoun, is used of animals or
things.

Sometimes which refers to an idea or thought expressed
by a preceding phrase or clause: as, "This description may

OF PRONOUNS 2^^

seem much exaggerated, which it certainly is not"; "I re-
lieved his pain, which made him very grateful." This use
is avoided by careful writers.

That is used of either persons or things: as,
"Happy is the man that findeth wisdom"; "This is
the house that Jack built."

The relative pronoun that is always very closely con-
nected with its antecedent in both meaning and position,
never being used when there is any pause between the rela-
tive dause and the antecedent. Hence it is never used to
introduce a clause that is merely descriptive or forward-
moving. We say," Water that [or which] is stagnant is unwhole-
some"; "The water, which was beautifully dear, lapped the
sides of the boat." Another peculiarity of that is that it
never has a preposition before it. We say, "The book of
which you told me," or, "The book that you told me (?/,"
putting the preposition last when "that" is substituted for
"which."'

What is peculiar in that it combines the functions
of both antecedent and relative pronoun, as:

*To the Teacher. Some grammarians would make * * that' ' obligatory
whenever the relative clause is restrictive, reserving *'who" and "which"
exclusively for clauses that are merely descriptive or forward-moving.
According to them, "He prayeth best who loveth best'* ought to be
"He prayeth best that loveth best." But this obligatory use of "that"
in restrictive clauses has never been a rule of English speech, and is not
likely to become one, partly because of the impossibility of using "that"
after a preposition, and partly because of the disagreeable sound of such
combinations as **That remark that I made yesterday." As a rule
euphony decides in restrictive clauses between **who" or "which" and
"that."

234 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 184

Insert appropriate Relative Pronouns in the blanks
in the following sentences y and give the reason j or your
choice:

1. Man is the only animal can talk.

2. Time is lost is never foimd again.

3. The dog bit the child has been killed.

4. That is the man spoke to lis yesterday.

5. We have a mastiflF, follows us everywhere.

6. I met the boatman took me across the ferry.

7. The crow dropped the cheese, the fox then ate.

8. I worked six problems, was the best I could do.

9. Do you know that man is just entering the car?

10. Shakespeare was the most expressive man ever

lived.

11. At the comer I met a policeman, went with me.

1 2. We have done many things we ought not to have

done.

13. He does all he can does all can be

expected.

14. Her hair, was dark brown, was gathered in a

Grecian knot.

15. Why should we consult Charles, knows nothing

of the matter?

Exercise 185

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the
Relative Pronouns ^^who,^ ^^which,^' "^Aa/," and
''what:'

148. Case of Relative Pronouns. The case of a
relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante-

OF PRONOUNS 23S

cedent, but is determined by its use in the clause in
which it stands. It may be:

(i) The subject of a verb: as, "The lady who went out is
my aunt."

{2) A possessive modifier: as, ''The boy whose manners
you liked is my brother."

(3) A direct object: as, "He whom thou lovest is sick."

(4) Used with a preposition: as, "I know the person of
whom you speak."

In Milton's expression, "Satan, than whom none higher
sat," "than whom," found in all the best authors, but now
going out of use, is an idiomatic exception to the rules
governing the choice between "who" and "whom."

Caution. To determine the case of the relative "what,"
consider only its relation to the words of the noun clause in
which it stands. In "WTAo/ followed was only a natural
consequence," it is the subject of "followed." In ^^What
he did was weU done," it is the object of "did." In ''What I
asked for was denied me," it is used with the preposition
"for." In each of these sentences the entire relative clause
is the subject of the verb "was."

Exercise 186

Parse the Relative Pronouns in Exercise 43.

Models, i. The man that is giddy thinks the world turns
round.

That is a relative pronoun with man as its antecedent.
Therefore, it is third person, singular number, masculine
gender. It is in the nominative case because it is the subject
of the verb is.

236 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

2. This is the house that Jack built.

That is a relative pronoun with hotise as its antecedent.
Therefore it is third person, singular number, neuter gender.
It is in the objective case because it is the object of the verb
built,

3. The picture which you are looking at is by Rembrandt.

Which is a relative pronoun with picture as its ante-
cedent. Therefore it is third person, singular number, neuter
gender. It is in the objective case because it is used with
the preposition at,

4. The Chinese admire women whose feet are small.

Whose is a relative pronoun with women as its ante-
cedent. Therefore it is third person, plural number, femi-
nine gender. It is in the possessive case modifying feet.

Exercise 187

Parse each Pronoun in Exercise 146.

Exercise 188

Insert the proper form of Relative Pronoun in each
of the following blanks^ and give the reason for your
choice:

Who, whom

1. We recommend only those we can trust.

2. I met a man I have no doubt was your uncle.

3. A lady entered, I afterwards learned was his

aunt.

4. He gave the watch to Norman, he thinks will

take care of it.

5. They have foimd the woman they thought had

been murdered.

OF PRONOUNS 237

149. **Whose" or "Of Which-" The relative
pronoun "whose" is often used of things as well as
persons, corresponding in sense to "of which:" as,
"The undiscovered country from whose bourn no
traveler returns." The choice between "whose" and
"of which" is frequently decided by euphony.

Exercise 189

Tell which of the italicized expressions you consider
preferable, and give your reason:

Whose, of which

1. She asked for a book whose name {the name of which) I
had never heard.

2. The "White Captive" is a woman boxind to a tree, in
whose bark {the bark of which) arrows are sticking.

3. Through the heavy door whose bronze network {the
bronze network of which) closes the place of his rest, let us
enter the church itself.

4. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious
elevations, on whose tops {the tops of which) the sun kindled
all the melodies and harmonies of light.

5. Men may be ready to fight to the death for a religion
whose creed {the creed of which) they do not understand, and
whose precepts {the precepts of which) they habitually disobey.

150. "As" used as a Relative. After the words
"such" and "same" the word "as" is used as a rela-
tive pronoun: e.g., "Tears such as angels weep burst
forth."

After "such" the relative is always "as."

After "same" it is "as" or "that," with a difference

238 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

in meaning. The same as usually means ''of the
same kind," e.g., "My trouble is the same as yours."
The same that means "one and the same": as, "He
uses the same books that his brother does."

This distinction, however, does not hold in elliptical
sentences, where "the same that" is never found, e.g.y
"He uses the same books as his brother." Occasionally
"who" or "which" is used mstead of "that," e.g., "This is
the very same rogue who sold us the spectacles" (Gold-
smith); "With the same minuteness which her predecessor
had exhibited" (Scott).

Occasionally "as" is used as a substitute for "which" to
refer to a preceding idea or thought, e.g.^ "The ship was
frozen in, as often happens in polar regions."

By the omission of the pronoun subject or object, "but"
sometimes acts as a negative relative equivalent to "that
not" or "who not": as,

There is not a wife in the west country
Bid has heard of the well of St. Keyne.

Exercise 190

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the
proper ivordj and give the reason for your choice:

As, that

1. This is the same book my father used.

2. I hold the same political opinions my father.

3. I hold the same political opinions my father holds.

4. These are not the same tramps were here yesterday.

5. She is the same merry girl since her marriage she

was before it.

151. Relative Pronouns Omitted. The relative
pronoun when it would be the object of a verb or

OF PRONOUNS 239

used with a preposition, is often omitted: as, "The
book [that or which ] I left here is gone" ; "The girl
[that or whom] you are looking for has not come yet."

Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative case
is omitted: as, " 'Tis distance [that] lends enchantment
to the view."

152. Compound Relative Pronouns. Examine the
forms and uses of the relative pronouns in the fol-
lowing sentences :

Whoever {i,e., Any person who) goes must start at once.

Whosoever (i.e., Any person who) exalteth himself shall be
abased.

Take whichever (i.e., any which) you want.

Whatever (i.e.. Anything which) he does he does well.

Sell whatsoever {i.e., anything which) thou hast, and give
to the poor.

With regard to form you observe that the italicized
pronouns are made from "who," ^'which," and
"what" by adding "ever" or "soever."

With regard to use, (i) they perform the fimctions
of both relative and antecedent, like "what" (147);
and (2) they are very indefinite in their meaning,
being equivalent to "any person who," "any which,"
or "anything which." ■

A pronoun formed from "who," "which," or
"what" by adding the suflSx "ever" or "soever" is
called, with reference to its form, a Compound Rela-
tive Pronoun.

Definition, A compound relative pronoun is a

240 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

pronoun formed by adding the snflSx "ever" or
"soever" to "who," "which," or "what."

Compound relative pronouns are called, with reference to
their meaning, Indefinite Relative Pronouns.

Other compoimd relatives, seldom used now, are "whoso"
and "whichsoever."

"Who," "which," and "what" are sometimes used as
indefinite relatives: as, ^Who steals my purse steals trash";
"Take Tf^AicA you will"; "Do wAo/ you can."

153. 'Whoever" or "Whomever." The only
difficulty likely to arise in connection with the use of
compound relatives Ues in the words "whoever" and
"whomever."

"Give it to whoever comes to the door" and "Give
it to whomever you see" are both correct. ^'Whoever"
is the subject of "comes"; "whomever" is the
object of "see." In each sentence the entire rela-
tive clause is used substantively with the preposi-
tion " to."

"Whosoever" and "whomsoever" are used in the same
way: as, "Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be
much required"; "Whosoever exalteth himself shall be
abased."

Exercise 191

FUl the blanks with the proper forms and give the
reason for your choice:

Whoever, whomever

1. Elect you wish.

2. I will entertain you send.

OF PRONOUNS 241

3. We will give it to you say.

4. did it ought to be ashamed of himself.

5. We will give it to seems to need it most.

V. Indefinite Pronouns

154. Indefinite Pronouns Defined. Examine the
italicized words in the following sentences:

Same have gone.
Each took his turn.

You observe that "some" and "each" are sub-
stitutes for names, but do not refer definitely to any
particular individuals.

A pronoim that does not refer to any particular
individual is called an Indefinite Pronoun.

Definition. An indefinite pronoim is a pronoim
that does not refer to any particular individual.

The indefinite pronoims are the following:

1. DistribuiiveSy referring to individuals of a class taken
separately: each, either, neither.

2. Words of number or quantity: all, any, both, few, many,
much, several, some, aught, naught, one, none.

3. Comparatives: such, other, another.

4. Compound pronouns: each other, one another (called
reciprocals) ; a certain one, many a one.

When these words accompany nouns, they must be classed
as Pronominal Adjectives: as, ^^Each boy took his turn";
*^Some men are born great."

242 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 192

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of ten
different Indefinite Pronouns.

Exercise 193

(Review)

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in the following
sentences:

1. Love thy neighbor as thyself.

2. God helps them that help themselves.

3. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself
as he that putteth it off.

4. I find the Englishman to be him of all men who stands
finnest in his shoes.

5. Those who make the best use of their time have none
to spare. ♦

6. Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost
his savor, wherewith shall it be salted?

7. I am monarch of all I survey,

My right there is none to dispute.

8. There's a divinity that shapes our ends,

Rough-hew them how we will.

9. What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.

10. Tis with our judgments as our watches, — ^none
Go just alike, yet each believes his own.

OF PRONOUNS 243

Exercise ^194

(Review)

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in the following
selections:

1. Go, lovely rose!

Tell her that wastes her time and me

That now she knows,
When I resemble her to thee,
How sweet and fair she seems to be.

2. My mind to me a kingdom is;

Such present joys therein I find.
That it excels all other bliss,

That earth affords or grows by kind:
Though much I want which most would have,
Yet still my mind forbids to crave.

3. Some have too much, yet still do crave;

I little have, and seek no more:
They are but poor, though much they have,

And I am rich with Uttle store:
They poor, I rich; they beg, I give;
They lack, I have; they pine, I live.

CHAPTER V

OF ADJECTIVES

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or
a pronotm (82).

155. Classification of Adjectives. Adjectives may
be arranged in two general classes, as follows:

1. Descriptive Adjectives, denoting qualities or attributes
of objects: as, "A black hat." Descriptive adjectives
answer the question of what kind or in what condition?

2. Limiting Adjectives, limiting the application of the
noun or pronoun, without expressing any idea of kind or
condition: as, "TAw book"; "r/roZ page"; " F(?«^ moun-
tain"; "TAree kittens"; ^^Some pleasure." Limiting adjec-
tives answer the questions what, which, how many, or how
much?

Limiting adjectives include:

(i) Articles: as: ''The sky," "^ cloud."

(2) Pronominal Adjectives, often used as pronouns: as,
''This hat," "Which door," "Each night." Such words are
pronouns when they stand for nouns; pronominal adjectives
when they accompany noims. (See page 195).

(3) Numeral Adjectives, denoting number: as, "Three
kittens"; "Second base." The adjectives one, two, three,
etc., are called Cardinal Numerals in distinction from first,
second, third, etc., which are called Ordinal Numerals.

244

OF ADJECTIVES 245'

Exercise 195

Classify the Adjectives in Exercise 92,

156. Singular and Plural Adjectives. The only
adjectives that have separate forms for singular and
plural are the pronominal adjectives "this" (plural
"these") and "that" (plural "those").

Mistakes in the use of these forms frequently
occiu: in connection with such words as sort and
kindj which are grammatically singular. The fol-
lowing sentences are correct: " That kind of house is
common in New England"; "How do you like this
sort of horses?"

Exercise 196

Insert the proper form in each of the following
blanks:

This these; that, those

1. I do not like sort of men.

2. We want no more of sort of goods.

3. What do you think of kind of golf clubs?

4. Young gentlemen should let sort of thing alone.

5. I always delight in overthrowing sort of schemes,

157. Comparison of Adjectives. Examine the
adjectives in the following sentences:

This is a high mountain.

That is a higher mountain.

Yonder is the highest mountain of all.

"High," "higher," and "highest" are all forms of

246 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

the same adjective, and all denote the same quality;
but they denote it in different degrees.

High merely denotes a quality; higher denotes
that the object described has more of that quality
than another object with which it is compared;
highest denotes that the object described has the
most of the quality.

A difference in the form of an adjective to denote
degree is called Comparison.

The simple form of an adjective is called the
Positive Degree.

The form of an adjective that represents an object
as having a higher (or lower) degree of a quality
than another object is called the Comparative
Degree.

The form of an adjective that represents an object
as having the highest (or the lowest) degree of a
quality is called the Superlative Degree.

Definition. Comparison is a difference in the form
of an adjective to denote degree.

Definition. The positive degree is the simple
form of an adjective.

Definition. The comparative degree is the form
of an adjective that denotes a higher (or a lower)
degree a quality.

Definition. The superlative degree is the form of
an adjective that denotes the highest (or the lowest)
degree of a quahty.

OF ADJECTIVES 247

Sometimes the superlative degree is used when no com-
parison is intended: as, "My dearest mother.'' In such
cases the superlative inflection has nearly the same force
as the adverb "very."

158. Methods of Comparison. Examine the itali-
cized forms in the following sentences:

I never

, f nohler \

knew as ,, >man.

I more noble J

{

TT • 4.1. ; noblest \ t

He IS the \ ^ ., > man I ever saw.
most noble J

From this it appears that there are two ways of
comparing adjectives:

1. By Inflection, adding "er" and "est** to the positive to
form the comparative and the superlative.

2. By Phrasal Comparison, using the adverbs "more"
and "most."

Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of
two syllables, are usually compared by the addition
of "er'* and "est": as, weak, weaker, weaken/;
narrow, narrower, narrower/.

Some adjectives of two syllables, and all longer
adjectives, are usually compared by using "more"
and "most": as, famous, more famous, most famous;
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

In general the method of comparison is a matter
of taste, determined for the most part by the ear.

248

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 197

Compare the following adjectives:

proud
strong
bright
warm

safe
able
spry
happy

careful
yellow
unkind
honest

useful
lively
fearless
important

difficult
beautiful
ungrateful
distinguished

159. Irregular Comparison. The comparison of
the following adjectives is irregular:

Compar. SuperL

worse worst

farther farthest

, £ /foremost

fore former <-.

[forth, adv,] further furthest

e^?,^ 1 better best
well J

Positive.

bad
evil
iU
far

Positive. Compar. SuperL

later latest

\latter last

less least

late

little

manyl

much/

near
old

nearer

folder
\elder

most

fnearest

\next
oldest
eldest

160. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison. Some
adjectives denote qualities that do not vary in
degree: as, "straight," "perfect," "circular," "daily,"
"square," "round," "ujitiring." Strictly speaking,
such adjectives cannot be compared; yet custom
sanctions such expressions as "straighter," "roujid«
est," "more perfect," because they are convenient.

161. Use of the Comparative and Superlative.
The comparative degree properly impUes a corn-
parison of two things or sets of things; the super^

OF ADJECTIVES 249

lativey of more than two: as, "He is older than T';
"She is the youngest of the family/'

In modem English this distinction is not always f onowed,
good writers frequentiy using the superlative when only two
things are compared: as, "Who was the firsts Ruth or
Maude?" "He is the best of the two." In general, when two
things or sets of things are compared, the comparative
degree is preferable: as, "Which is the taUer, Ruth or
Maude?"

Caution. It is incorrect to say, "Iron is more useful
than any metal," because "iron" is included in the term
"any metal," and of course iron cannot be more useful
than itself. For a similar reason it is incorrect to say,
"Iron is the most useful of any metal." It is correct to
say, "Iron is more useful than any other metal"; "Iron is
the most useful of all metals."

Exercise 198

Constriict sentences comparing the following things y
using first a Comparative, then a Superlative form:

1. The large population of China; the smaller populations
of other coimtries.

Model. China has a larger population than any other
country. China has the largest population of all the coun«
tries in the world.

2. Smith, the best athlete; the other boys in the schooL

3. Mary's recitations; the recitations of her classmates
which are not so good.

4. The population of London; the population of the other
cities in the world.

aso THE PARTS OF SPEECH

5. The Falls of Niagara; other falls.

6. The Panama Canal; other engineering works.

162. The Articles.* The adjectives "the" and
a'* or "an," are called Articles.

€(^9f

"The" is a weakened form of the demonstrative pronoun
*'that/'

"An" (shortened to "a" before consonant sounds) is a
weakened form of the numeral adjective "one," which was
formerly written "an." In general it always implies oneness,
but usually in a vague, indefinite sense that does not belong
to the nimieral adjective "one."

163. "A" or "An." The choice between "a" or
"an," which are different forms of the same word, is
determined by sound. Before a vowel soimd "an"
is used; before a consonant sotmd "a" is used.

Caution. Sound and spelling do not always coincide.
For example, "one" and "unit" begin with vowels, but the
initial sounds are those of the consonants "w" and "y" in
"won" and "you"; therefore we say "a unit," "such a one."
"Honor" begins with a consonant, but the initial sound is
that of the vowel "o" in "onset"; therefore we say "an
honor.*'

Usage is divided as to "a" or "an" before words beginning
with "h" and accented on the second syllable. We say "an
historical sketch" or "a historical sketch," according to
taste.

iTo the Teacher. A study of the articles is important for all students
of foreign languages.

OF ADJECTIVES 251

Exercise 199

Put the proper form of the article "-4" or **An^\
before each of the following expressions:

Ay an

(i) article, (2) onion, (3) luiion, (4) uniform, (5) uninformed
reader, (6) universal belief, (7) useful invention, (8) lunpire,
(9) unfortunate mistake, (10) eulogy, (11) Europeany (12)
hour, (13) honest man, (14) house, (15) himible dwelling,
(16) habitual drunkard, (17) hotel, (18) heroic people,
(19) hereditary disposition, (20) hero of the school.

164. Articles Definite and Indefinite. Compare
the italicized expressions in the following sentences:

Man is mortal.

The child is dying.

A soldier stood on guard.

"Man," imlimited by an article, applies to aU
mankind.

"The child" applies to an md^\\d\idl already before
the mind.

"A soldier" applies to a representative of his
class.

"The" points definitely to a particular object
and is called the Definite Article.

"A" (or "an") selects one, no matter which, and
is called the Indefinite Article.

165. Uses of the Articles. No one principle
covers all the uses of the articles. These must be

as« THE PARTS OF SPEECH

learned chiefly through observation and imitation.
It may be helpful, however, to enmnerate some of
their special functions.

The Definite Article is used :

(i) To designate objects as already before the mind: as,
'HDne night a wdf fell in with a dog. The wolf was all skin
and bones, while the dog was as fat as he could be."

(2) To designate objects as near by or prominent in the
mind: as, "I sprang to //^^ window"; "T/?^ birds are singing";
"We saw /A^ queen"; ^^The Scriptures tell the story of the
Flood"

This use of the article tends to change a common into a
proper noun, as indicated f requendy by the use of capitals.

(3) To give to a common noun a representative or collective
force: as, "T/re reindeer is a native of Norway."

This use of the article — called the Generic (Latin gener-,
*^3L dass") — ^is borrowed from the French. The English
article, as remarked above, singles out; the generic article
cMects.

The Indefinite Article is used:

(i) In its original numerical sense of "one^\' as, "Not a
word was said"; "Two at a time."

When nouns have the same form for both singular and
plural, this use of the article distinguishes the niunbers: as,
"He has a sheep"; "He has sheep."

(2) In the vague sense of "a certain": as, "One night a
wolf fell in with a dog." (The word "one" in this sentence
hardly differs in function from the articles.)

(3) In the sense of '^any" to single out an individual as the
representative of a class: as, "^ ball is round."

OF ADJECTIVES 253

(4) To make o, common noun of a proper noun: as, "-4
Daniel come to judgment."

Note. In "many a child," "such a person," and similar
expressions, the article follows the adjective, instead of
preceding it.

Caution. It is incorrect to say, "What kind of a
flower?" because "a" means "one."

Exercise 200

Tdl the difference in meaning between:

1. Give me a (one) pen.

2. I have caught (a) cold.

3. A black and (a) white cat.

4. Bring me the (that) candle.

5. Grass (The grass) is green.

6. I sprang to a (the) window.

7. Birds (The birds) are singing.

8. Men (The men) admired him

9. He has (a) trout in his basket.

10. Bring me a (the) lighted candle.

11. Man (The man) is a strange being.

12. Wanted a cook and (a) housemaid.

13. Men (The men) ran to give the alarm.

14. There were few (a few) friends with him,

15. He behaved with little (a little) reverence.

16. The (That) road crosses the (a) moimtain.

17. A man (The man) on the shore rescued her.

18. Mr. Smith (A Mr. Smith) called to see you.

19. If you wish to have virtue (a virtue), you must prac-
tice it.

20. Shall I tell you a (the) story of a (the) wolf and a
(the) dog?

254 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 201

Insert the proper article in each blanks if an article
is needed; if no article is needed^ leave the place blank:

A J an, the

1. lion is king of beasts.

2. What kind of bird is that?

3. My favorite flower is violet.

4. What sort of pen do you like?

5. Colonel Waring died of yellow fever.

6. He well deserves the name of scholar.

7. Omit third and fourth page (pages).

8. There are two articles, the definite and indefinite.

9. Nouns have two numbers, singular and

plural.

10. Two figures came slowly down the road; one

was a man, other a boy.

Exercise 202

1. Write five sentences of your own illustrating the
three common uses of the Definite Article.

2. Write five sentences of your own illustrating the
four common uses of the Indefinite Article.

166. Caution. Not every "the" is an article, nor
every "a.'*

In " The more they get the more they want," and
similar constructions, "the" is an adverb, a survival
of an old adverbial case-form of the pronoun "that."

In "Who goeth a borrowing, goeth a sorrowing,"
and similar constructions, "a" is a survival of an old
preposition.

OF ADJECTIVES 2$$

167. Position of Adjectives. Adjectives axe used
with nouns or pronoims in three different ways,
indicated by different positions, as follows:

1. Adherent: as, "The happy child danced with joy."
This relation is a close connection, in direct attachment to
the substantive. It has sometimes been called the Attribu-
Uve relation.

2. Appositive: as, "The child, happy and joyous, danced
along the path." This relation is the same as that of the
appositive noun (54).

3. Predicate: as, "The child is happy J^ Here the
connection with the substantive is niade through the
mediiun of the verb, and the adjective is a subjective
complement or predicate adjective (38)

168. Substitutes for Adjectives. The function of
an adjective may be performed by:

(i) A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case: as, "That
is John^s book"; "This is my book." (116, 133.)

(2) A prepositional phrase: as, "The path by the lake is
shady."

(3) An infinitive phrase: as, "Water to drink was scarce."

(4) A participial phrase: as, "The boy reciting his lesson
is my brother."

(s) A clause: as, "The girl whom you saw is my sister."
(49, 145.)

169. How to Parse an Adjective. To parse an
adjective one must tell:

(i) Its class.

(2) Its comparison.

(3) Its use.

as6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Model. "The good news arrived yesterday."
"Good" is a descriptive adjective. It is in the positive
degree, and is compared, "good," "better," "best." It
modifies the noim "news" in the adherent position.

Exercise 203

Parse the Adjectives in Exercise 17.

Exercise 204

(Review)

Parse the Adjectives in Exercise 56.

Exercise 205

(Review)

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives in
Exercise 91.

CHAPTER VI

OF ADVERBS

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb,
an adjective, or another adverb (85).

Most adverbs are used only with verbs; hence the name
"adverb." The adverbs that are used with adjectives or
other adverbs are few in number.

170. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning.

Classified according to meaning, adverbs are of six
kinds:

(i) Adverbs of time: as, "Let us go now.''

(2) Adverbs of place: as, "Come here.

(3) Adverbs of manner: as, "He fought bravely,^

(4) Adverbs of degree: as, "He talks little.'^

(5) Adverbs of came: as, "Why did you come?"

(6) Adverbs of assertion: a,s, "Perhaps I can help you";
No, you can not help me."

((

"No" and "yes," which are used by themselves as the
equivalents of sentences, are classed as adverbs for historical
reasons.

257

2S8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 206

Classify the Adverbs in Exercise 96 according to
meaning.

Model for Written Exercise:

Time
now

Place

Manner
bravely

Degree

Cause
why

Assertion
not

171. Adverbs Classified According to Use.

Classified according to use, adverbs are of three
kinds:

1. Limiting Adverbs y used to modify the meaning of a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb: as, "He walked rapidly"; "She
is very pretty, and talks exceedingly well,"

2. Interrogative Adverbs, used to ask questions: as, "When
did you arrive?" Indirect: "He asked when we arrived."

3. Conjunctive Adverbs, used to introduce clauses: as,
"We went on to Paris, where we stayed a week."

Conjimctive adverbs shade oflF into conjunctions, from
which they frequently cannot be distinguished.

172. The Form of Adverbs. With regard to
form, adverbs are of three kinds:

1. Simple Adverbs, which have no adverbial termination:
as, "Come here" ; "That is too bad." This class includes
nouns and adjectives that are made into adverbs by being
set in an adverbial position: as, "He was stone dead";
"Pull hard,"

2. Derivative Adverbs, which have adverbial terminations:
as, "You acted wisely,"

OF ADVERBS

259

3. Compound Adverbs, which are idiomatic adverbial
phrases that cannot easily be separated into parts. The fol-
lowing are common examples:

arm-m-arm

at once

m vain

as yet

at worst

now-a-days

at all

by all mea.ns

of course

at best

by far

of late

at large

face to face

of old

at last

for good

on high

at least

ere long

one by one

at length

in general

two by two

at most

in short

The most common form of adverb in literary
English is the form in "-ly." It is made freely from
all kinds of adjectives except those that already
end in "-ly."'

Adjectives that already end in "-ly," as "lively"
and "friendly," usually have no corresponding
adverb. We use instead some adverbial phrase : as,
"in a friendly way" ; "in a lively manner."

Adjectives used as adverbs are frequent in the literature
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: as, "Then was
the king exceeding glad" (Dan. vi, 23); "The sea went
dreadftd high" (Robinson Crusoe) . They also occur somewhat
freely in modern poetry. In modem literary prose they are
seldom used, good writers preferring the adverbial forms in
"ly," except in a few cases which may be learned by obser-
vation: as, ^'Pikh dark"; '*He ran fast^'; "Come quick^^;
"Stand right''; "I bought it cheap.''

360 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 207

Tdl which of the italicized words is correct according
to the best iisagCj and give the reason:

1. She gets her lessons easy {easily) enough.

2. Are you coming with us? Sure {surely).

3. Speak slow {slowly) and distinct {distinctly).

4. He could scarce {scarcely) control his feelings.

5. A person should dress suitable {suitably) to his station.

173. Comparison of Adverbs. Many adverbs
denote ideas that vary in degree, and therefore they
admit of comparison, like adjectives (157).

Adverbs of one syllable (and a few others) usually
form their comparative and superlative degrees by
adding "-er" and "-est": as, "PuU harder.''

Adverbs in "-ly" usually form the comparative
and superlative by prefixing "more" and "most":
as, "He felt it most keenly.''

In other respects the comparison of adverbs re-
sembles the comparison of adjectives.

Exercise 208

Tdl which of the italicized expressions is preferable^
and give the reason:

1. I can study easiest {most easily) in the morning.

2. He writes plainer {more plainly) than he used to.

3. You ought to value your privileges higher {more highly).

4. Which can run the faster {fastest) y Conner or Board-
man?

5. Which is the farther {farthest) north, New York, Chicago,
or San Francisco?

OF ADVERBS 261

174. Adjective or Adverb. It is sometimes a
question whether to use an adjective or an adverb
after such verbs as "grow/^ "look/^ *'sound,"
"smell/^ "taste."

If the added word applies to the subject of the
verb, it should be an adjective; if to the verb, it
should be an adverb. We say "Wo feel warm^^
when we mean that we are warm; we say "We feel
warmly on this subject," when we mean that our
feeKngs are stirred up.

As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective whenever
the verb resembles in meaning some form of the verb
"be" or "seem"; otherwise we use an adverb.

Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb,
with no difference in meaning: as, "We arrived
saje {^sajdy)P

"I feel welV^ and "You look wdV^ are the correct expres-
sions when referring to health, and "well" is here a predicate
adjective.

"Good" is not used as an adverb by the best writers and
speakers.

Exercise 209

Distinguish between:

1. That looks good (well).

2. We found the way easy (easily).

3. The potatoes are boiling soft (sofUy).

4. The new bell-boy appeared prompt {promptly),

5. I found Barbara happy (happily) at home.

a62 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 210

Tdl which of the italicized words is correcty and
give the reason :

1. She plays very good (welt).

2. The door shut easy (easUy).

3. Deal gentle (gently) with them.

4. How sweet (sweetly) those blossoms smell!

5. He stood firm (firmly) in spite of opposition.

6. He felt awkward (awkwardly) in her presence.

7. She looks beatUiftd (beautiftdly) in a pink gown.

8. He did not act awkward (awkwardly) in her presence.

9. The wind blows cold (coldly) through the gaps in these
mountains.

10. Will you come? Sure (surely),

175. Position of Adverbs. Adverbs, like other
modifiers, shoxild be placed next to the word or
words that they modify.

The word only requires special care, as will appear from
observing how changes in its position affect the meaning of
the following sentences:

(a) Only he lost his hat. (b) He only lost his hat. (c) He
lost only his hat. (d) He lost his only hat. (e) He lost his
hat only.

As a general rule, "only" should be placed immediately
before what it is intended to modify. Occasionally, when
no ambiguity would arise (as at the end of sentences), it may
be placed after the word it modifies, with an emphatic, almost
a disparaging effect: as, "He lost his hat only.^'

OF ADVERBS 263

176. "There** E:q>letive. Compare the following
sentences :

(a) A gust of wind came.

(J) There came a gust of wind.

These sentences are alike in meaning, but diiBfer
in form. The first sentence begins with the subject,
"A gust of wind," which is followed by the predicate,
"came." The second sentence begins with "There,"
followed by the predicate, which in turn is followed
by the subject. In such sentences the introductory
word "there" adds nothing to the meaning, and is
commonly called an E:q>letive (131).

Other examples are : "TAere was water in the well";
^^ There are two sides to every question:"

The second sentence tells us not so much that a gust of
wind catne, as that what came was a gust of wind.

The expletive "there" is regularly used before the various
forms of "be" when they denote existence: as, *'There is a
God"; ^^ There were giants in those days."

Exercise 211

Point out the Subject^ the Predicate^ and the Exple^
tive in each of the following sentences:

I. There was a jolly miller.

Model for Oral ExERasE. The subject is "a jolly mil-
ler"; the predicate is "was." "There" is an expletive.

364

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Mqixel for Whixien Exercise:

There

miller

was

jolly

2. There never was a good war.

3. There is a time for all things.

4. There was silence deep as death.

5. There came a voice from heaven.

6. There is no royal road to learning.

7. There is a reaper whose name is Death.

8. There was a soimd of revelry by night.

9. There's a divinity that shapes our ends.

10. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.

11. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin.

Exercise 212

Write five sentences that begin with ^Hhere^^ Exple-
tive^ and underline the predicate of each.

177. Double Negatives. In modern literary Eng-
lish two negatives destroy each other, and are
equivalent to an affirmative: as, "I can't do nothing"
= "I can (and must) do something.''

Formerly two or more negative adverbs were frequently
used to strengthen one another.

178. Substitutes for Adverbs. The adverbial
fimction may be performed by:

(i) A noun: as, "The book cost a dollar'^' "We studied

an hour." (115: 4.)

OF ADVERBS 265

(2) An adverbial phrase: as, "He came an foot J^ (47.)

(3) An adverbial clause: as, "They started when the sun
roseJ^ (49.)

179. How to Parse Adverbs. To parse an adverb
we must give its :

(i) Class accprding to (a) use, and ip) meaning.

(2) Comparison.

(3) Construction.

Model. "Here stands the man."
"Here" is a limiting adverb of time. It cannot be com-
pared. It modifies the verb "stands."

Exercise 213

Parse the Adverbs in Exercise loo.

Exercise 214

(Review)

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs
in Exercise loi.

CHAPTER VII

OF VERBS

A Verb is a word used to assert (27).

The verb is the instrument of assertion. Usually it de-
notes action; less often, being or state (28); sometimes it
has assertive power only (29). Sometimes it is a single
word, sometimes a phrase (30).

I. CLASSIFICATION

180. Transitive Verbs. Examine the verb in the
following sentence:

John frightened Helen.

In this sentence, "frightened" denotes an action
which involves two persons: John, the doer of the
action; and Helen, who receives it. The action of
frightening passes over from John, the doer, to Helen,
the receiver.

A verb that denotes an action that passes over
from a doer to a receiver is called a Transitive
Verb (Latin /raw^ire, "to pass over").* (Seepage275.)

^To the Teacher. A transitive verb is often defined as "a verb that
requires an object to complete its meaning.'' This is not true of a
transitive verb in the passive voice. Furthermore it does not help
pupils to see the difference between direct objects and predicate nouns
or adjectives in such sentences as ^'Arnold turned his back'' and
"Arnold turned traitor."

266

OF VERBS 267

Definition. A Transitive Verb is a verb that
denotes an action that passes over from the doer to a
receiver.

Other examples are :

I hear a voice.

Galileo invented the pendulum.

181. Intransitive Verbs. Examine the verbs in
the following sentences:

John laughed,
John was happy.
John became a doctor.

These verbs do not denote an action that passes
over from a doer to a receiver. Such verbs are called
Intransitive Verbs.

Definition. Intransitive Verbs are verbs that do
not denote an action that passes over from a doer
to a receiver.

Other examples are :

The rainbow comes and goes.
Enough is as good as a feast.

Intransitive verbs are of two kinds: (i) Verbs of Complete
Predication^ which can be used by themselves as complete
predicates: as, "The rainbow comes and goes^^ (34); (2)
Verbs of Incomplete Predication or Linking Verbs ^ which
cannot by themselves be used as complete predicates, but
require predicate nouns or adjectives: as, "Enough is as
good as a feast" (35).

268 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

182. Some Verbs Either Transitive or Intran-
sitive. The distinction between transitive and
intransitive verbs is based solely on meaning and use,
and if the meaning and use of a verb change, its
classification changes too. Hence, it happens that
some verbs are at one time transitive, at another
intransitive: as,

Transitive: She wore a wreath of roses

The night that first we met.
Intransitive: Never morning wore

To evening, but some heart did break.

A peculiar instance of change from one class to another
occurs when a verb usually intransitive becomes transitive
through the addition of a preposition used as an inseparable
adjunct: as, "They laughed''; "They laughed at me." That
the words "laughed at" in the last sentence are to be taken
together as a transitive verb is shown by the fact that if the
sentence is thrown into the passive form (185), "at" remains
attached to the verb: as, "I was laughed at by them."

Exercise 215

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences
and tell whether they are Transitive or Intransitive:

1. I hear a voice.

2. The shrill bell rings.

3. The horse and rider reel.

4. The splendor falls on castle walls.

5. My good blade carves the casques of men.

6. A troop of strange children ran at his heels.

7. He came to a rocky gorge in the mountain.

OF VERBS 269

8. The little boy dipped his hands in the pooL

9. God scatters love on every side.

10. I leaped on board the train.

11. With his knife the tree he girdled.

12. I shot an arrow into the air.

13. The lark at heaven's gate sings.

14. Long at the window he stood.

15. Vast meadows stretched to the eastward.

16. Trifles make perfection.

17. Galileo invented the pendulum.

18. Month after month passed away.

19. Four times the sun had risen and set.

20. He went to his room to lie down.

Exercise 216

Write ten sentences, using each of the following
Verbs first as Transitive, then as Intransitive:

break fly move return speak

183. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished
by Form. A few verbs in common use, distin-
guished as transitive or intransitive by their spelling,
are often confoimded in some of their forms. They
are:

Intransitive
Fall: as, "Divided we fall:'

Past, fell: as, "Great

Caesar /gW."
Fast ParticiplCy fallen: as,

"She hsiS fallen asleep."

Transitive

Fell ("cause to fall")- as,
" Woodmen /^W trees.''
Fast, felled: as, "They

felled all the good trees."
Past Participle, felled: as,

"This tree was felled

yesterday."

270

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Intransitiye
Lie: as, '^Lie still."

Past, lay: as, "Behold,

Sisera lay dead."
Past Participle, lain: as

"Had he lain there

long?"

Rise : as, "Rise with the lark."

Past, rose: as, "Then up he

rose."
Past Participle, risen: as,

"The lark has risen,"

Sit: as, "Let us sit down.

Past, sat: as, "We sat on

the piazza."
Past Participle, sat: as,

"He has sat there all
day."

Transitive

Lay ("cause to lie"): as,
"Lay the book down."
Past, laid: as, "He laid

the book down."
Past Participle, laid: as,
"He has laid the book
down."

Raise (" cause to rise ") : as,

"Raise your head."
Past, raised: as, "He

raised his head."
Past Participle, raised: as,

"He has raised his

head."

Set ("cause to sit"): as, "Set

the lamp on the table."
Past, set: as, "She set the

lamp on the table."
Past Participle, set: as,

"She has set the lamp

on the table."

Exercise 217

Insert the proper word in edch blank in the following
sentences:

Lie, lay, lying, laying, lain, laid.

1. Let him there.

2. I found it on the floor.

3. Ireland s west of England.

4. Slowly and sadly we him down.

5. You had better down for a while.

OF VERBS 271

6. During the storm the ship at anchor.

7. He told me to down, and I down.

8. The carpet does not smooth on the floor.

9. I was so weary that I down in my clothes.

10. He told me to it down, and I it down.

Exercise 218

Insert the proper word in each blank in the following
sentences:

Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised,

1. up, you lazy fellow.

2. The price of corn has .

3. Let them up and help you.

4. She cannot get her bread to .

5. Cain up against Abel, his brother.

6. Many are they that up against me.

7. Abraham up early in the morning.

8. He himself up before I could reach him.

9. " ■ up," said I, "and get you over the brook."

10. He up and began to speak.

Exercise 219

Insert the proper word in each blank in the following

sentences:

Sit, sat, set.

1. Where do you ?

2. Have you there long?

3. down and talk a while.

4. Let us a good example.

5. She had to up all night.

6. The calamity heavy on us.

272 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

7. Let us here and listen to the music.

8. Yesterday we round the fire telling stories.

9. He the basket on a rock, while he went to the

spring.

10. thine house in order.

184, Auxiliary Verbs. Compare the uses of the
verb "have" in the following sentences:

I have a ball.

I have lost my ball.

In the first sentence "have'^ expresses a distinct
idea of its own, namely, the idea of possession.

In the second sentence it has laid aside this mean-
ing and merely helps to express the meaning of an-
other verb, "lost."

A verb that merely helps to express the meaning
of another verb is called an Auxiliary Verb.

Definition. An auxiUary verb is a verb that
merely helps to express the meaning of another verb.

A verb that expresses a distinct idea or notion of its own
is sometimes called a Notional Verb.

The verb that follows an auxiliary is always an infinitive
(94) or a participle (93), and is sometimes called the Principal
Verb in the verb-phrase.

Can, let, may, must, ought, should, and would. These
verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are always
followed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore most
grammarians call them auxiliaries. But they also express

OF VERBS 273

distinct ideas of their own, e.g. ability, volition, permission,
necessity, obligation, etc.

Exercise 220

Tdl whether the italicized verbs are Auxiliary Verbs
or not. If not auxiliary^ tell the idea or notion expressed:

1. She does her work well.

2. She does not see me.

3. Have you a sled?

4. Have you read "Ben-Hur"?

5. I a/» reading it now.

6. It is an interesting story.

7. You may come to see me whenever you can find time.

8. Can you speak French?

9. I must go now.

10. Everyone ought to tell the truth always.

n. Voice

185. Voice Defined. Compare the following sen-
tences :

An Indian shot a deer.

A deer was shot by an Indian.

The verbs "shot" and "was shot" are both tran-
sitive, because they represent an action passing over
from a doer to a receiver (180).

"Shot" represents the subject of the sentence as
doing the action, while the receiver is named by the
direct object.

"Was shot" represents the subject of the sentence

274 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

as receiving the action, while the doer is expressed
by the phrase, "by an Indian."

A difference in the form of a verb to show whether
the subject acts or is acted upon is called Voice.

When a verb represents the subject as doing
the action it is in the Active Voice.

When a verb represents the subject as receiving
the action it is in the Passive Voice.

Definition. Voice is a difference in the form of a
verb to show whether the subject acts or is acted
upon.

Definition. The active voice is the form of a
verb which represents the subject as doing the
action.

Definition. The passive voice is the form of a
verb which represents the subject as receiving the
action.

Sometimes the subject of a passive verb denotes
the object produced by the action: as, "The nest was
built by a wren."

When a transitive verb is in the passive voice,
the doer of the action is often omitted : as,

A deer was shot [by an Indian].
Helen was frightened [by John].
The ship was wrecked [by a storm].

Intransitive verbs can have no passive voice.

OF VERBS 275

The difference between the active and the passive voices
of transitive verbs may be graphically represented as follows:

Active Voice Passive Voice

^ <^

Subject Verb Object Subject Verb Agent

An Indian shot a deer. A deer was shot by an

Indian.

Passive Voice, Agent omitted

t * »

Subject Verb

A deer was shot.

Verbs like "have," "own," "possess," "inherit," etc.,
though they do not express action or feeling, are nevertheless
called transitive, because they involve two objects, the
possessor and the thing possessed.

Exercise 221

Make a list of the verbs in the following sentences
and tell whether they are in the Active or the Passive
Voice:

I. Grocers sell butter.

270 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

2. Butter is sold by grocers.

3. The manager gave me a ticket.

4. The bird forsook her nest.

5. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake.

6. The solos will be simg by Madame Homer.

7. The voice of the turtle dove is heard in the land.

8. Mother is giving a limcheon to-day.

9. The school bell had been nmg at the usual time.
10. The swallows were seeking their nests.

Exercise 222

Rewrite the sentences in Exercise 221, changing the
Active into the Passive Voice and the Passive into the
Active Voice,

Exercise 223

Make a list of the verbs in the following selection
and tell whether they are in the Active or the Passive
Voice:

Apples in Ancient Times

It appears that apples made a part of the food of that
unknown primitive people whose traces have lately been
found at the bottom of the Swiss lakes, so old that they had
no metallic implements. An entire black and shriveled crab
apple has been recovered from their stores.

The apple tree has been celebrated by the Hebrews,
Greeks, Romans, and Scandinavians. Some have thought
that the first human pair were tempted by its fruit. CJod-
desses contended for it, dragons guarded it, and heroes
searched for it.

OF VERBS 277

Exercise 224

Write two sentences in which the verbs are in the
Active Voice; three in which they are in the Passive
Voice.

186. Form of the Passive Voice. Compare the
following sentences:

{Active) Grocers sell butter.
(Passive) Butter is sold by grocers.

(Active) Congress made Dewey an admiral.
(Passive) Dewey was made an admiral by Congress.

(Active) The manager will give you a ticket.
(Passive) A ticket will he given you by the manager; or
(occasionally), You wUl he given a ticket by the manager.

You observe that the passive voice of a verb is
formed by using the verb be as an auxiliary ("is,"
"was," "wiU be").

You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed
from the active to the passive form, the direct object
of the active verb ("butter," "Dewey," "ticket") be-
comes the subject of the passive verb.

The subject of the active verb ("Grocers," ' 'Con-
gress," "manager") becomes an agent after the pas-
sive verb — di, relation expressed by the preposition
"by."

An objective complement ("admiral") becomes a
pred>rate noxm (or adjective).

278 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

An indirect object usually remains an indirect object.
Sometimes the indirect object is made the subject of the
passive verb, the direct object then becoming a "retained
object" (i88).

Exercise 225

Renvrite the following sentences changing each verb
into the Passive Voice:

1. The Puritans founded Harvard College.

2. Manners reveal character.

3. A sense of duty pursues us ever.

4. Gentle deeds make known a gefhtle mind.

5. Public amusements keep people from vice. '

6. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the
historian, blind for life.

7. They found her lying in the snow frozen to death.

8. All believed him to be an honest man.

9. The sly agent imposed upon us both.

10. The wounded man's wife took care of him.

Exercise 226

Rewrite the following sentences changing each verb
into the Active Voice:

1. The corn has been badly damaged by the late
storm.

2. The subject was dropped by us and has not been
mentioned since.

3. Forty thousand persons were killed in 1883 by the
eruption of the volcano of Krakatoa.

OF VERBS 279

4. It will be said by the newspapers that congratulations
are showered on you by your friends.

5. In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks
and made the capital of their empire.

Exercise 227

Rewrite the following sentences j changing each into
the Passive fornij and tell the use in the new sentences
of the italicized words:

1. He kept me wailing.

Model. I was kept waiting by him. A predicate
participle.

2. This made him angry.

3. God called the light day.

4. She promised me a book.

5. I gave him a receipt in full.

6. They painted the house green.

7. Victoria made Tennyson a baron.

8. Perseverance keeps honor bright.

9. Mother bought Alice a doll.

10. He wrought the castle much annoy.

11. He told them many strange stories of the sea.

187. Caution. The passive voice, denoting action
received by the subject of the sentence, must not
be confounded with predicate words denoting the
condition of the subject, e.g., "He is gone"; "Our
revels now are ended." (32.)

28o THE PARTS OF SPEECH

The passive voice must also be carefully dis-
tinguished from the progressive tenses (202) of
the active voice: as,

Passive: "Birds are shot for their feathers."
Progressive: "The birds are singing"

Exercise 228

Tell whether the italicized words in Exercise 24 are

Predicate Adjectives or Participles^ or parts of Passive

Verb-phrases.

Exercise 229

Tell whether the italicized words in the following
sentences are Predicate Adjectives or Participles^ or
parts of Passive Verb-phrases:

1. The melancholy days are come,

2. The school bell is rung at nine o'clock.

3. The quality of mercy is not strained.

4. The apples were picked yesterday.

5. The spectacle was well adapted to excite wonder.

6. Man is born imto trouble as the sparks fly upward.

7. The lines ^xt fallen imto me in pleasant places.

8. Rome was not built in a day.

9. I am not prepared to recite this morning.
10. A fool and his money are soon parted.

Exercise 230

Make a list of the verbs in the following sentences
and tell the Voice of each:

1. Annie is studying her lesson.

2. Tom has been mending his kite.*

OF VERBS '48i

3. The lawn is being watered by the gardener.

4. The grammar class is taught by Miss H.

5. By whom was this ink spilled?

188. Indirect Objects in Passive Sentences.

When sentences containing a direct and an indirect
object are turned into the passive form, it would
seem that the direct object should become the
subject of the passive verb, because it denotes the
object which directly receives the action expressed
by the verb; and that the indirect object should
remain imchanged : thus,

Ind. Obj.
(Active) He handed her a chair.

Ind. Obj.
(Passive) A chair was handed her.

As a matter of fact, however, not the direct
object, but the indirect is sometimes made the sub-
ject of the passive verb : as.

She was handed a chair.

This cannot be logically explained, but it is
accepted as good English. "Chair" is for conven-
ience called a Retained Object.

Exercise 231

Change the following sentences into the Passive form:

1. Harry gave me a penny.

2. She promised me a book.

^83 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

3. I gave him a receipt in full.

4. Mother bought Alice a doll.

5. He paid the men their wages.

6. He wrought the castle much annoy.

7. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends.

8. He told them many strange stories of the sea.

m. Number and Person

189. Inflection for Number and Person. In
some languages the form of the verb changes with
the number and person of the subject, and the verb
is said to agree with its subject in number and person.

In Old English such number and person forms
of the verb were numerous.

In modem English the form of the verb "be"
still changes with the niunber and person of the
subject, as follows :

Present

' Singular

First Person: I am

Second Person: You are (Thou art)

Third Person: He is

We "

You
They .

ural
' an

Past

First Person: I was We

Second Person: You were (Thou wast) You \ were

Third Person: He was They

Other verbs in modem English have lost all their
inflections for number and person, except in the

OF VERBS 283

second and third persons of the singular number j as

follows :

First Person: I make.
Second Person: Thou mak«/.
Third Person: He makej (make/A).

The termination "-st" (subject "thou*0 is used only in
Biblical and poetic language (127).

The termination "-th" or "-eth," which was once used
instead of "-s," survives only in Biblical language and in
poetry: as, "He that maketh haste to be rich shall not be
innocent"; "He prayeth well who loveth well."

In common use the only inflection for number
and person is "-s" in the' third person singular,
except in the verb "be."

190. Construction of Number Forms. Examine
the verbs and their subjects in the following
sentences :

(i) A sense of duty pursues us ever. (Singular subject;
singular verb.)

(2) Troubles never come singly. (Plural subject; plural
verb.)

(3) Half of them are gone. (Subject singular in form but
plural in sense; plural verb.)

(4) '^Gulliver s TraveW^ was written by Swift. (Subject
plural in form but singular in sense; singular verb.)

(5) Tom and his sister were there. (Two singular subjects
together forming a plural; plural verb.)

(6) Bread and butter is good enough for me. (Two
singular subjects taken together as one thing; singular verb.)

(7) Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular
subjects considered separately; singular verb.)

284 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

You observe that, in general, a singular form of
the verb is used when the subject is singular or
regarded as singular; a plural form, when the sub-
ject is plural or regarded as plural.

The principle that a verb agrees with its subject
in number is in most cases followed unconsciously.
A few constructions, however, require special notice :

1. The pronoun "you'* takes a plural verb e^ep whea the
meaning is singular: as, "Tom, you were late.'*

2. A collective noun in the singular number takes a
singular verb when the collection is viewed as a whole; a
plural verb when the members of the collection are thought
of as individuals (136): as, "The committee was discharged."
(Here the committee is thought of as a body.) "The com-
mittee were eating dinner." (The committee ate, not as a
body, but as separate individuals.)

3. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural sense from the
presence of two or more distinguishing adjectives: as,
"Mental, moral, and phjrsical education here go hand in hand."

4. When subjects connected by "or" or "nor" are of diflFer-
ent numbers, the verb usually agrees with the nearest: as,
"One or two were there."

Caution. When one or more plural words come between
a singular subject and its verb, a writer is in danger of for-
getting the real subject and of giving to the verb the number
of the nearest substantive. The following sentences are
correct: "The formation of paragraphs is very important."
(Here the subject is "formation.") "Every one of us has
had this feeling." (Here the subject is "Every one.")

Words joined to a singular subject by "with," "together
with," "in addition to," or "as well as," are not on the same
grammatical level as the subject, but are parenthetical, and

OF VERBS 285

therefore do not affect the number of the verb: as, "Justice,
as well as mercy, allows it."

Exercise 232

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of the
verb "fee," and give the reason for your choice:

1. I know you there.

2. One of you mistaken.

3. One or two ready now.

4. Two years a long time.

5. Five years' interest due.

6. A hundred yards not far.

7. There many things to do.

8. Bread and milk good diet.

9. The public cordially invited.

10. Each of the sisters beautiful.

11. Neither of the girls very much at ease.

12. A nmnber of the boys waiting outside.

13. Manual and physical training necessary.

14. Either the master or his servants to blame.

15. Two thousand dollars a year a good salary.

16'. Fluency and eloquence two different things.

17. Neither the painter nor his picture very famous.

18. She has one of the prettiest faces that ever seen.

19. "Tales of a Traveler" ^published by Irving in 1824.

20. General Custer, with all his men, massacred by

Indians.

191. "Don't." "Don't," which is a contraction
of "do not," and which is proper enough in its place,
should not be misused for "doesn't" when the sub-

286 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

ject is in the third person singular. The following
sentences are correct: "Why doesnH she come?'*
"Why donH they come?"

Exercise 233

Insert the proper contraction (donH, doesnH) in
each blanks and give the reason for your choice:

1. Why he write?

2. It seem possible.

3. She like croquet.

4. I know what it is to be afraid.

5. The captain says he know what it is to be afraid.

192. Construction of Person Forms. A difficulty
arises in using the personal forms of verbs when the
subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns
of diferent persons connected by either — or^ or
neither — nor. For example, shall we say: "Either he
or I is mistaken," or "Either he or I am mistaken"?

We usually, but by no means always, let the verb
agree with the nearest subject; or, we give the pref-
erence to the first person over the second or third.

It is better to avoid such difficulties (i) by using
some verb that has the same form for all persons:
as, "Either he or I must be mistaken"; or (2) by re-
arranging the sentence: as, "Either you are mistaken,
or I am"; "One of us is mistaken," etc.

193. Verbs with Relative Pronouns as Subjects.

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the

OF VERBS 287

verb takes the number and person of the antecedent
for which the pronoun stands: as, "I, who am your
friend, would not pain you needlessly"; "You, who
are my friend, should not deceive me"; "He who
is my friend will help me."

Exercise 234

Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give
the reason:

1. She is one of the best mothers that has (have) ever lived.
Note. The antecedent of "that" is "mothers."

2. My room is one of those that overlook (overlooks) the
lake.

3. It was one of the best games that has (have) ever been
played on our field.

4. You are not the first man that has (have) been deceived
by appearances.

5. He is one of those restless boys who is (are) always
wanting to do something.

6. One of his many good traits that come (comes) to my
mind was his modesty.

7. "Treasure Island" is one of the best pirate stories that
was (were) ever written.

8. Stevenson is one of the writers who is (are) destined
to be immortal.

9. I am the man who have (has) charge of the boats.

10. Please show me that one of the pictures that is (are)
most like her.

388 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

IV. Tense

194. Tense Defined. Compare the verbs in the
f oUowing sentences :

I see the Brooklyn Bridge.
I saw the Brookl)ai Bridge.
I skall see the Brookl)ai Bridge.

Here we have three different forms of the same
verb, denoting the same action, but referring it to
different times — the present, the past, and the
future.

A difference in the form of a verb to denote time
is called Tense (Old French, "time").

A verb that refers to present time is in the
Present Tense. A verb that refers to past time is
in the Past Tense. A verb that refers to future
time is in the Future Tense.

Definition. Tense is a difference in the form of a
verb to denote time.

Definition. The present tense is the form of the
verb that denotes present time.

Definition. The past tense is the form of the
verb that denotes past time.

Definition. The future tense is the form of the
verb that denotes future time.

195. Simple Tenses. The English verb has only
two simple tense forms: the Present Tense, which
is the same as the root-form of the verb: as, "I

OF VERBS 28^

write^^^ "I hope^^ ; and the Past Tense, which is
formed from the present by inflection: as, "I wrote^^
"I hoped:'

To denote future action the present tense was at first
employed, as it still is occasionally: as, "We begin practice
to-morrow."

196. Fonnation of the Past Tense : Regular Verbs.

Examine the forms of the verbs "obey," "hope,"
and "mean" in the following sentences:

Present Past

I obey you. I obeyed you.

We hope for the best. We hoped for the best.

They mean well. They meani well.

You observe that the past tense is formed by
adding "-ed," "-d," or "-t."

A verb that forms its past tense by adding "-ed,"
"-d," or "-t," is caUed a Regular Verb.

Definition. A regular verb is a verb that form.s
its past tense by adding "-ed," "-d," or "-t."

Most regular verbs are of later origin than irregular verbs.
Hence this mode of forming the past tense is sometimes called
the New Conjugation. It is also sometimes called the Weak
Conjugation.

Many regular verbs undergo an internal vowel change,
like irregular verbs; but they differ from irregular verbs in
having an added "-d" or "-t" in the past tense: as, tell, to\d\
teach, tawgh/; buy, b(?ttgh/.

Some regular verbs change "d" of the present to "t" in*,
the past: as, build, buil/; send, sen^; spend, spen/.-

ago THE PARTS OF SPEECH

197. Fonnation of the Past Tense : Irregular Verbs.
Examine the forms of the verb "give" in the following
sentences :

Present Past

They give liberally. They gave liberally.

You observe that the past is formed from the
present by changing the vowel "i" to "a".

A verb that forms its past tense by an internal
vowel change, without any suffix, is called an
Irregular Verb.

Definition. An irregular verb is a verb that forms
its past tense by an internal vowel change, without
any suffix.

Irregular verbs are among the oldest verbs in our language;
therefore their mode of forming the past tense is sometimes
called the Old Conjugation. It is also sometimes called the
Strong Conjugation.

All these verbs originally had the ending "-n" or "-en"
in the past participle (93); but this ending has been lost
in many verbs: as, "fight," "fought [en]."

198. Formation of the Past Tense : Mixed Verbs.

Some irregular verbs have adopted the method of
the new conjugation while retaining also that of the
old: as, crow, crew or crowed; dig, dug or digged;
hang, hung or hanged; thrive, throve or thrived.

A few verbs form their past tense according to one con-
jugation, and their past participle according to another: as,
hew, hewed, hewn: show, showed, shown; sow, sowed, sown;
swell, swelled, swollen; wake, woke, waked.

OF VERBS 291

199. Phrasal Tenses. In course of time the two
simple tenses were foimd insufficient; and to denote
further distinctions of time, verb-phrases were em-
ployed, formed by means of auxiUary verbs.

200. Phrasal Tenses: Future. To form a Fu-
ture Tense we use "shall" or "will'' as an auxiliary, ,
followed by the root infinitive without "to"-: as,

"I shall write to him'';
"He will write to me."

The distinction between shall and will is given in 210.

Exercise 235

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences ,
and tell the Tense of each.

1. Here stands the man.

2. Who killed Cock Robin?

3. We shall surely expect you.

4. He advanced to the council table.

5. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew.

6. We fought because we believe in justice.

7. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road.

8. Wild animals suflFer when kept in captivity.

9. You will find many beautiful flowers growing on the
prairie.

10. Honor and shame from no condition rise;
Act well thy part, there all the honor lies.

Exercise 236

Write fifteen sentences containing the Present ^ Past,
and Future Tenses of ''fight;' ''stand;' "sing^' "play,''
and "laugh."

292 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

. 201. Phrasal Tenses: Perfect* To present an
action as completed at a given time we use the present,
past, or future of "have" as an auxiliary, followed
by the past participle: as,

"There! I have written my exercise";

"Yesterday, when the clock struck nine, I had written two
pages"; '

"To-morrow, by dinner time I shall have written all my
letters."

Since these phrasal tenses denote action as com-
pleted or perfect in present, past, or future time,
they are called the Perfect Tenses.

The Present Perfect Tense ("have written")"
denotes action completed at the present time.

The Past Perfect Tense ("had written") denotes
action completed at some point in past time.

The Future Perfect Tense ("shall have written")
denotes action that will be completed at some point
in future time.

Originally "have" in the perfect tenses was not an
auxiliary, and the participle described the object, as when
we now say: "I have my letters written^^ ; I had two pages
written*^ ; "I shall have my letters written^

Exercise 237

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences^
and tell the Tense of each.

1. John had read the book.

2. Katharine has just finished it.

OF VERBS 293

3. By to-morrow I shall have finished it.

4. I have thought of you frequently of late.

5. I have called, but ye have not answered.

6. You will have paid too dear for your whistle.

7. His father had forbidden his accompanying us.

8. He had been elected captain of the team only a few
days before.

9. By the time I reach Paris I shall have traveled ten
thousand miles.

10. I had often been told of the picturesque bandits and
beggars that infest the highways of the East, but I had
never met the gentry in such force.

Exercise 238

Write fifteen sentences containing the Perfect Tenses
of ''fight;' ''stand;' ''sing^' ''play,'' and "laugh."

202. Phrasal Tenses : Progressive. Compare the
verbs in the following sentences:

I write my letters carefully.
am writing my letters carefully.

Both of these sentences refer to present time, but
with a difference.

In the first sentence the simple present, "write/'
does not necessarily mean that the writing is going
on at the present moment; it merely asserts a present
custom.

In order to represent an action as going on or
progressing, we usually put the present, past, or

294 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

future form of "be" before the present partici-
ple: as,

I am writing letters;

I was writing letters;

I shall be writing letters.

Since such phrasal tenses denote action as pro-
gressing in present, past, or future time, they are
called Progressive Tenses.

The Present Progressive Tense ("am writing")
represents an action as going on at the present time.

The Past Progressive Tense ("was writing")
represents an action as going on at some pomt in
past time.

The Future Progressive Tense ("shall be writing")
represents an action as going on at some point in
future time.

203. Phrasal Tenses : Perfect Progressive. Com-
pare the verbs in the following sentences:

(i) I have written a composition.

(2) I have been writing a composition.

In the sentence "I have written a composition," the
verb "have written" merely represents the action
as completed.

If we wish to add to the idea of completion the
idea of previously going on or progressing^ we com-
bine the perfect tenses of "be" with the present par-
ticiple: as,

OF VERBS 295

I have been writing a composition;
I had been writing a composition;
I shall be writing a composition.

Since the phrasal tenses denote action as completed
in present J past, or future time, aft^ going on or pro-
gressingy they are called respectively the Present
Perfect Progressive Tense, the Past Perfect Pro-
gressive Tense, and the Future Perfect Progressive
Tense.

Exercise 239

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences
and tell the Tense of each.

1. The sun has gone down.

2. He had been walking all the morning.

3. Lucy is expecting her uncle from Boston.

4. He had written his mother from California.

5. They have been weighed in the balance and foimd
wanting.

6. I had spoken to him frankly and asked him to recon-
sider his decision.

7. When the bell rings I shall have been writing twenty
minutes.

8. Yesterday evening my hand was cramped, for I had
been writing aU day.

9. I have been writing letters this morning, and by noon
I shall have finished my correspondence.

10. He had been considered quite a wit in his youth, and
was still trying to live up to that reputation.

296 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 240

'Write six sentences illustrating each qf the Pro-
gressive Tenses of ^^fighf^ and ^^stand.^^

204. Phrasal Tenses: Emphatic, Interrogative,
and Negative. In the sentences "I write my letters
carefully" and "I wrote to her yesterday," "write"
and "wrote" merely assert action.

If we wish to make the same assertions emphatically
in the face of doubt or denial, we substitute for the
simple tenses certain phrasal tenses formed by put-
ting the present or the past of "do" before the root
infinitive of the principal verb: as,

"I do write my letters carefully'';
"I did write to her yesterday."

These phrasal tenses are appropriately called the
Present Emphatic Tense and the Past Emphatic
Tense.

Other tenses are made emphatic by laying emphasis on
the auxiliary that is already present: as, **I have written
my letters."

In Negative and Interrogative sentences, the
phrasal tenses formed with "do" and "did" are
substituted for the simple tenses, without the
effect of emphasis: as, ^^ Do you write to her often?"
^^Youdid not write carefully."

OF VERBS ^97

205. Summary of Tense Fonns. Gathering to-
gether the different tense fonps described in the
preceding sections, we may tabulate the tenses of
the EngKsh verb as follows:

Ordinary Emphatic Progressive

Present write do write am writing

Past wrote did write was writing

Future will write will be writing

Present Perf. have written have been writing

Past Perf, had written had been writing

Future Perf. will have written will have been writing

Note. Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ
a sort of future tense phrase formed by combining the
progressive tenses of "go" with the root infinitive of the
principal verb preceded by "to'': as, "I am going to write sl
composition"; "I have been going to write to him for a week."
It is best to resolve such phrases into their parts, rather
than to classify them as parts of the tense system. The
same is true of such phrases as "I used to write^^ and "I am
about to write, *^

Exercise 241

Make a list of the Verbs in Exercises 22 and 25 and
give the Tense of each.

Omit 22: 6-8, 13-15, 18-19; 25: 8-9.

206. Principal Parts of a Verb. The present, the
past, and the past participle are commonly called
the Principal Parts of a verb, because from them
we can determine all the other forms or parts.

The principal parts of a verb are the forms used
in filling the blanks in the following sentences:

Present Past Past ParticijVle
I now. I yesterday. I have .

ag8

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 242

Give the principal parts of the following verbs and
tell whether the verbs are regular or irregular:

arise

blow

.come

fight

hope

seek

bake

break

cost

find

keep

send

beat

bring

dream

freeze

laugh

set

begin

build

eat

have

lay

sing

bend

buy

faU

hear

lead

sit

beseech

catch

feed

hide

lend

teach

bind

choose

feel

hold

make

teU

207. Misused Forms. The past tense and the
past participle of the verbs in the following list are
often confounded or incorrectly formed:

Present

Past

Past Partidple

begin

began

begun

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

burst

come

came

come

dive

dived

did

done

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fly

flew

flown

flow

flowed

freeze

froze

frozen

forget

forgot

forgotten

get

got

went

gone

lay ("to cause to lie")

laid

lie ("to recline")

lay

lain

OF VERBS

29<

Present

Past

Past Participle

prove

proved

ride

rode

ridden

rise

rose

risen

raise ("to cause to rise") raised

raised

run

ran

run

see

saw

seen

set ("to put"

; of the sun, set

set

moon,

etc..

"to sink")

sit

sat

shake

shook

shaken

show

showed

shown

speak

spoke

spoken

slay

slew

slain

steal

stole

stolen

take

took

taken

throw

threw

thrown

wake

woke

waked •

write

wrote

written

In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, springs
swim, it is better to confine the forms in "a" to the past
tense, and the forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The
bell rang five minutes ago"; "Yes, the bell has rung J*

Exercise 243

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the
Past Tense:

1. 1 do it myself.

2. Tom swims very well.

3. Harry sees me coming.

4. The sun wakes me early.

5. The wind blows furiously.

6. They do their work well.

300 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

7. Helen comes in every day.

8. The guests begin to go home.

9. The Susquehanna River overflows its banks.

10. Barbara lays her coat on the chair.

11. They sit in the third pew from the front.

12. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball.

13. The wild goose flies southward in the autumn.

14. They eat their supper as if they were half starved.

15. The Negro women set their baskets on their heads.

16. George dives better than any other boy in the crowd.

17. The catcher often throws the ball to the second base.

18. The savages who live on this island slay their captives.

19. The workmen lay the rails for the track with great care.

20. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies down an
hour every day.

Exercise 244

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the
Perfect Tense:

1. He writes home.

2. I forget his name.

3. The sleeper awakes.

4. He stole my watch.

5. Ethel broke her arm.

6. They go by steamer.

7. Some one takes my hat.

8. I see the President often.

9. He gets along fairly well.

10. They slay their prisoners.

11. The enemy come in force.

1 2. The boys dive three times.

OF VERBS 301

13. Iset the lamp on the table.

14. A mist rises before my eyes.

15. The water in my pitcher /r(?2;e.

16. He speaks his declamation well.

17. The boys are eating their supper.

18. He throws cold water on my plan.

19. The Ohio River overflows its banks.

20. He sits by the hour talking politics.

21. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck.

22. This proves the truth of my assertion.

23. The wind blows my papers off the table.

24. A robin flies to the \dnes by my window.

25. John is driving the cows out of the corn.

26. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest.

27. This fact clearly shows the prisoner's guilt.

28. He wakes me every night by his restlessness.

29. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury.

30. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear.

208.' Uses of the Simple Present. The simple
present tense has the following uses:

1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that
includes the present: as, "He goes to town every Saturday";
"Two and two make four."

2. As an occasional substitute for the present progressive,
to denote action going on at the present moment: as, "I
see a robin"; "I hear the bell."

^To the Teachefi A complete discussion of the uses of English
tenses is impossible here, nor would it be desirable; for the tenses and
their uses are, for the most part, learned unconsciously from con-
versation and reading. The following discussion is limited to the few
instances in which experience shows that special comment is helpful.

302 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

3. As an occasional substitute for the future: as, 'We sail
for Europe next Saturday."

4. In vivid narrative as a substitute for the past: as,
"At this news Caesar hurries to Gaul." This is called the
Historical Present.

209. Uses of the Present Perfect. The present
perfect tense, which ordinarily represents some-
thing as completed at the time of speaking, is also
used, instead of a past tense, to represent a past
action (i) as continuing to the present, at least in
its consequences, or (2) as belonging to a period of
time not yet ended: as,

(i) "I have lost my book." (So that now I am without it.)
"We have lived here five years." (We still live here.)

(2) "I have seen him three times to-day. ^^

"We have had a great deal of rain this year,'^

The use of a past tense in any of these sentences
would cut away the action from all connection with
present time: as,

(i) "I lost my book." (It may have since been found.)
"We lived here five years." (We have moved away.)

(2) "I saw him three times yesterday,^*
"We had a great deal of rain last year.^^

Exercise 245

Distinguish in meaning between:

1. He studies (is studying) now.

2. I came (have come) to see you.

OF VERBS 303

3. I read (am reading) Thackeray.

4. He lived (has lived) here a good many years.

5. I wrote (had written, was writing) my letter when he
came.

Exercise 246

Tdl which of the italicized forms is correct and
give the reason for your answer:

1. I was (have been) here yesterday.

2. I knew (have known) him since he was a child.

3. How far did you say it is (was) from here to Chicago?

4. When we saw (had seen) everything in Geneva we went
on to Paris.

5. Mr. Williams regrets that a previous engagement
prevents (will prevent) him from accepting Miss Smith's kind
invitation for Monday evening.

210. Shall or Will. There is an important dis-
tinction between the auxiliaries used in forming the
future tenses.

At first "shall" and "will" were notional verbs,
"shall" meaning "to be obliged," and "will" mean-
ing "to wish."

At present they often retain some trace of their
original meanings, "will" implying a reference to
the will of the subject, and "shall" implying obliga-
tion or comptdsion: as, "I will never forsake you";
"He shall be brought to justice." Just as often,
however, "shall" and "will" are mere auxiliaries,
with no trace of their original meaning: as, "The
bell will soon ring, and I shall be late."

304 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Modem usage in independent sentences may be
Jiibited as follows:

exhibited as follows:

Simple Future Future, with added

idea of determination

I (we) shall I (we) will

You wiUi You shaU*

He (they) wiU He (they) shaU*

In clauses introdticed by the conjunction ^Hhat,^^
expressed or understood, the same auxiliary is used
that would be used if the clause were an independent
sentence: as, "I fear that we shall miss the train."
(Independent: "We shall miss the train.")

Such clauses are common after say, declare, tkink, believe,
hope, fear, and words of similar meaning.

In all other subordinate clauses "shall" in all per-
sons denotes simple futurity; "will" in all persons
implies an exercise of will: as, "When we shall
appear (simple futurity) we shall be like Him"; "If
you will come (i.e., are willing to come), we will give
you a good time."

In questions "shall" is the proper auxiliary in the
first person; in the second and third persons the
same auxiliary is used that is expected in the answer :
as, "5Aa// we go to-morrow?" 'Will you go?"
(Answer: "I will go.") ''Shall you be glad when
to-morrow comes?" (Answer: "I shall be glad.")

"Should" and "would" are the past tenses of

^Sometimes used in courteous command to a subordinate officer.
sAlso used in speaking of what is destined to take place.

OF VERBS 305

"shall" and "will," and in general follow the ssme
rules. See, however, section 217.

Exercise 247

Distinguish in meaning between:

1. He will (shall) not go.

2. Shall (will) you be there?

3. I shall (will) not hear you.

4. She will (shall) not see me.

5. He thought I would (should) go.

6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow.

7. If he would (should) help, we could do it.

8. You will (shall) know my answer to-morrow.

9. If she disobeyed, she would (should) be pimished.

10. Do you think I would (should) go under the circum-
stances?

Exercise 248

Insert the proper auxiliary {^ ^ shall ^^ ^^wilV^) in each
blank in the following sentences:

I. we go to-morrow?

2. W^e have rain soon.

3. I — — be glad to see you.

4. you be able to come?

5. I be twelve in December.

6. If I do not hurry, I be late.

7. I hope you be able to come.

8. I am afraid we miss the train.

9. She says she be glad to see us.

10. We never forget this kindness.

11. we have time to get our tickets?

3o6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

12. We be pleased to have you call.

13. I fear that I not be able to come.

14. He thinks he not be able to come,

15. John thinks he be sick to-morrow.

16. John thinks James be sick to-morrow.

17. It is probable that I be away at that time.

18. you meet me at the corner in five minutes?

i^. They declare they never forget this kindness.

20. we have another chance at this examination?

Exercise 249

Insert the proper auxiliary Q^wotdd,^^ ^^should^^) in
each blank in the following sentences:

1. He thought I be hurt.

2. He thought he be hurt.

3. He thought she be hurt.

4. He thought you be hurt.

5. I Uke to see a yacht race.

6. At first I didn't think I Uke Latin.

7. If I tried to walk a tight-rope, I fall.

8. I asked him whether he come again.

9. I think they have known better.

10. I feel glad if she tell me wherein I have

oflFended her.

V. MOOD

211. Mood Defined. Compare the verbs in the
following sentences:

He is here.

Would he were here.

Be here at daylight.

OF VERBS 307

In these sentences we have three different forms
of the verb "be," indicating different ways in which
the thought is presented to the mind. "Is" shows
that it is presented as a fact; "were" shows that
it is presented as a mere thought (he is not here);
"be" shows that it is presented as a command.

A difference in the form of a verb to show the
manner in which the thought is presented is called
Mood.

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a
fact is called the Indicative Mood.

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a
mere thought, imcertain or contrary to fact, is called
the Subjunctive Mood.

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a
conunand, request, or consent is called the Impera-
tive Mood.

Definition. Mood is a difference in the form of a
verb to show the manner in which the thought is
presented.

Definition. The indicative mood is the form of a
verb which presents a thought as a fact.

Definition. The subjimctive mood is the form of a
verb which presents a thought as a mere thought,
imcertain or contrary to fact.

Definition. The imperative mood is the form of a
verb which presents a thought as a command, re-
quest, or consent.

3o8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

212. The Indicative Mood. The indicative mood
is the most common. It is used (i) in expressing a
fact, or what is assiuned to be a fact, and (2) in ask-
ing questions of fact: as, "/^ he well?" "Who was
he?"

Caution. The indicative is often used in sentences that
express what is uncertain or contrary to fact; but in such
cases the uncertainty or untruth is expressed by some other
wordy and not by the form of the verb: as, ^^ Perhaps it will rain";
"He is not here."

The subjunctive, on the other hand, often expresses un-
certainty or untruth by its own form without the help of other
words: as, **Were he here, he would go with us."

213. The Subjunctive Mood: Form. In form
the subjimctive differs from the indicative in the
following ways :

1. In the verb "6^" the subjimctive has distinct
forms for the present and past tenses, namely :

JPresent . . Past

Indicative

Subjunctive

Indicative

Subjunctive

lam

Ibe

Iwas

I were

Thou art

Thou be

Thou wast

Thou wert

He is

Kebe

He was

He were

We are

We be

We were

You are

You be

You were

They are

They be

They were

Examples of the Subjunctive of <<Be" in Sentences.

(i) "Judge not, that ye be not judged"; (2) "Hallowed be Thy
name"; (3) "If I were you, I would not say that"; (4) "Would
that Alice were here!"

OF VERBS . 309

2. In other verbs the subjunctive has the same
form as the indicative, except that in the second
and third persons singular there are no personal
endings: as,

^ Present , ^ Past

Indicative Subjunctive Indii:ative Subjunctive

I write I write I wrote I wrote

Thou writest Thou write Thou wrotest Thou wrote

He writes He write He wrote He wrote

Examples of the Subjunctive of Other Verbs than ''Be."

(S) 'Tt is better he die^^ ; (6) "Govern well thy appetite, lest
sin surprise thee"; (7) "Long live the King!" (8) "If thy hand
of end thee, cut it oflF."

214. The Subjunctive Mood: Uses. In ordinary
modem EngKsh the subjimctive mood is used to
express volition (i.e. will or determination), wish,
and conditions contrary to fact, and in these uses
it is quite frequent. Thus:

1. Volition: "I move that Mr. Jones be made chair-
man"; "I insist that he J(? it"; "Everyone me."

2. Wish: "God forbidr "O, that I were a man";
"Hallowed be thy name."

3. Condition contrary to fact: "If I were you, I would
go." (218.)

In literary English the subjunctive mood is used
to express, in addition to the above, anticipation
(i.e. looking forward), obligation or propriety, ideal
certainty (i.e. certainty in an imaginary case), and

3IO ^ THE PARTS OF SPEECH

indirectness (i.e. indirect questions and quotations).
Thus:

4. Anticipation: "Judge not, that ye be not judged";
"Here will I stand till Caesar pass along.''

5. Obligation or propriety: "It is better he die"; "It is
necessary that she be told."

6. Ideal certainty: "Love were clear gain." (Browning.)

7. Indirectness: "When I ask her if she love me. ..."
(Tennyson.)

Some fixed expressions in everyday English con-
tain survivals of other uses of the subjunctive mood :
as, "5e that as it may"; ^^ Suffice it to say"; "She
will be twenty, come Christmas."

The subjunctive is sometimes used in neutral conditions
(218): as,

"If it be asked why he did it, the answer is easy."

The subjunctive is much less used than it was formerly;
but it is still common in the writings of authors who are
artistic and exact in expression; and a knowledge of its form
and uses is important in the study of foreign languages.*

215. The Subjunctive Mood: Tenses. The use

of the tenses of the subjimctive is pecuKar, the time
referred to not always corresponding to the name
of the tense. Frequently the present subjimctive
refers to future time, and the past subjunctive to

i"Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is just as good as lost, that it
is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated*
it might even now be saved. . . .If we lose the subjunctive verb, it will certainly be a
grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving
variation to diction — and I make bold to assert tnat the writer who helps to keep it up
deserves public gratitude."— /^/(fi Earle: "English Prose, Its Elements, History, and
Usage/' p. 172.

OF VERBS 3"

present time: as, (Future time) "Strike ere it be
too late"; (Present Time), "O, that I were a man."

216. The Imperative Mood. The imperative
mood expresses conunands, requests, or consent
addressed to the person spoken to. It is used only
in the second person; and it has the same form for
both singular and plural: as (singular or plural),
"-Be just, BXidfear not." It is usually distinguished
from the present indicative by the omission of the
subject.

Caution. Commands or requests addressed to the person

spoken to must not be confounded with wishes concerning

a person or thing spoken of: as, "Long live the Queen!"

"Thy kingdom come." In these sentences the verbs are in

the subjunctive.

Exercise 250

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences,
and tdl the Mood of each:

1. God forbid.

2. Love me, love my dog.

3. Thy money perish with thee.

4. The law is good if a man use it lawfully.

5. Take heed that ye do not your aims before men.

6. He serves his party best who serves the country best.

7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be
lost.

8. If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably
with all men.

312 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

9. Boast not thyself of to-morrow; ior thou knowest not
what a day may bring forth.

10. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they
toil not, neither do they spin.

11. God sifted a whole nation that he might send choice
grain over into this wilderness.

12. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged
about his neck, and he cast into the sea. •

13. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while
a foreign troop was landed in my country I never would lay
down my arms, — ^never! never!! never!!!

14. Come what come may,
Time and the hour runs through the roughest day.

15. Shall I, wasting in despair,

Die because a woman's fair?
Or make pale my cheeks with care,

'Cause another's rosy are?
Be she fairer than the day.
Or the flowery meads in May,

If she be not so to me.

What care I how fair she be?

217. Mood-Ideas Expressed by Atixiliaries. Many
ideas which in old English were expressed by mood-
forms are in modern English expressed by auxiliary
verbs. Thus :

1. Anticipation: "Before he shall come^'; " Before he
should come,*^ (Literary.)

2. Volition: "I insist that he shall do it"; " I insisted
that he should do it."

OF VERBS 313

3. Wish: "I hope you may succeed**; " I hoped you
might succeed,**

4. Obligation or Propriety: "It is right that he should
do it."

5. Natural Likelihood: "There are many reasons why
he should {ought to) make a good teacher."

6. Possibility: "It is possible that he may make a good
teacher"; "We were afraid that we might miss the train."

7. Ideal Certainty: "I am sure that he would fail,**

8. Less Vivid Future Condition: "If he should try, he
would succeed,** (218.)

218. Moods in Conditional Sentences. A sen-
tence containing a condition or supposition (e.g. If
it is clear, I will go) is called a Conditional Sentence.
The clause expressing the condition is called the
Conditional Clause, or, more briefly, the Condition.
The clause expressing the conclusion is called the
Conclusional Clause, or, more briefly, the Conclu-
sion.

A condition may refer to presenty past, or future
time.

If it refers to present or pc^t time, the form of the
condition may imply nothing with regard to its
reality or non-reaUty, or it may imply that the
condition is contrary to fact. If it implies nothing
with regard to reality or non-reality, it is called a
Neutral Condition. If it implies that the condition
is contrary to fact^ it is called a Condition Contrary
to Fact. Similarly, we have neutral conclusions and
conclusions contrary to fact.

314 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Conditions referring to future time are either
More Vivid or Less Vivid. Thus:

Present

Neutral: If U is raining, I stay home.

Contrary to fact: If it were raining, I would stay at home.

Past

Neutral: If it was raining, I stayed at home.

Contrary to fact: If it had rained, I would have stayed at

home.

Future

More vivid: If it rains, I will stay at home.

Less vivid: If it should rain, I would stay at home.

A neutral present or past condition (or conclusion)
Is usually expressed by the Indicative: as, "If it is
asked why he did it, the answer is easy." Some-
times, however, the Subjunctive is used in a neu-
tral present condition: as, "If it be asked why he
did it, the answer is easy."

A condition or conclusion contrary to fact is ex-
pressed by the Subjunctive: as, '*If I were you, I
would not go."

In conditional clauses the Present Subjunctive
refers to either present or future time, and suggests
doubt.

The Past Subjunctive refers to present time and
imphes that the supposition is contrary to fact.

The Past Perfect Subjunctive refers to past tinte^
and impUes that the supposition was contrary to fact.

OF VERBS ' 31S

Note. I. Whea "if" is equivalent to "whenever," the
condition is called general^ to distingtiish it from f articular
conditions, which refer to some particular act at some par-
ticular time. General conditions properly take the indica-
tive: as, "If (i.e., whenever) it rains, I stay at home."

Note 2. Sometimes there is no "if," and then the verb or a
part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "TFere it raining, I
should be sorry"; ^^Had it been raining^ I should have been
sorry."

Note. ^. Clauses introduced by "though," "although," and
"unless" take the same forms as clauses introduced by "if."

Exercise 251

Tell which of the italicized forms is preferable:

1. I wish I was (were) a man.

2. If I was (were) you, I would stay at home.

3. The train could go faster if it was (were) necessary.

4. Though a liar speaks (speak) the truth, he will not be
believed.

5. Though gold is (be) more precious than iron, it is not
so useful.

Exercise 252

Tdl the difference in meaning between the sentences
in ecLch of the following groups, and tell the Mood of
each verb:

1 . (a) If she goes, I will go. (b) If she should go, I would go.
(c) If she were going, I would go. (d) If she had gone, I would
go. (e) If she had gone, I would have gone.

2. (a) If he follows my advice, he will succeed, (b) If he
followed my advice, he would succeed, (c) Had he followed

3i6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

my advice, he would have succeeded, (d) If he should follow
my advice, he would succeed.

3. (a) If she speaks French, she does not need an inter-
preter, (b) If she speaks French, she will not need an inter-
preter, (c) If she spoke French, she would not need an
interpreter.

4. (a) If he is faithful, he will be promoted, (b) If he
should be faithful, he would be promoted, (c) If he were
faithful, he would be promoted, (d) If he had been faithful,
be would have been promoted.

5. (a) Oh, that he may be truthful! (b) Oh, that he were
truthful! (c) Oh, that he had been truthful!

6. (a) Even though it is raining, I will go. (b) Even though
it rain, I will go. (c) Even though it should rain, I will go.
(d) Even though it rained, I went, (e) Even though it rains,
I will go. (/") Even though it rained, I would go. (g) Even
though it has rained, I will go. (h) Even though it had
rained, I would go. (i) Even though it had rained, I would
have gone.

VI, PARTICIPLES

A Participle is a form of the verb that partakes
of the nature of the adjective (93).

219. Nature of Participles. Participles are in-
termediate between verbs and adjectives.' They
express action, being, or state, and take the same
complements and modifiers as the verbs from which
they are formed; but they have the constructions
of adjectives. They differ from verbs in not being
instnunents of assertion; they differ from adjectives
in having the complements and modifiers of verbs.
A participle is "a verb in an adjectival aspect."

OF VERBS 317

220. Form of the Participles. With regard to
form, participles are of two principal kinds:

1. The Present Participle, formed from the root of the
verb by adding "-ing": as, "The girl reading a book is my
cousin."

2. The Past Participle, usually formed from the root of
the verb by adding "-ed," "-d," "-t," "-en," or "-n" (196,
197): as, "The plant called Nightshade is poisonous";
"The book taken from my desk has been returned."

A Present Participle describes an action as going
on at the time denoted by the principal verb in the
clause or sentence.

A Past Participle describes an action as past or
completed at the time denoted by the principal
verb in the clause or sentence.

Exercise 253

1. Review Exercise 114.

2. Make a list of the Participles in Exercises 8
and 1^, and tell what each modifies.

22 1, Phrasal Participles. With the participles
of "be" and "have" as auxiUaries we form certain
Phrasal Participles, active and passive, correspond-
ing to some tense forms of the indicative : as.

Active

Fast: '^Having written my letters, I went to

bed."
Fast Frogressive: " Having been writing all day, I am tired."

318 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Pftsstve

Present: Being written in ink, the name was hard to erase.
Past: Having been written hastily, the letter contained

many mistakes.

Exercise 254

Make a list of the Participles in Exercise i6, and
tell the tense of ea^h.

Exercise 255

Write five sentences containing five different Par-
ticiples.

222. Construction of Participles. Participles have
all the ordinary uses of adjectives (167), and the fol-
lowing special uses in addition:

1. With Auxiliaries in Verb-Phrases: as, "Mother is
looking for you"; "He has written a letter."

2. Attached to a Nominative Absolute (223;: as, "Night
coming 4m, we Ughted a fire."

223. Nominative Absolute. Compare the fol-
lowing sentences :

{a) When night came on, we lighted a fire.
(b) Night coming on, we lighted a fire.

These sentences are alike in meaning, but differ
in form. In (a) the time of the principal action is
shown by the subordinate clause, *'When night
came on," in which "night" is the subject of the

OF VERBS 3igi,

verb "came." In (b) the connective "when" has
been dropped and the verb "came" has been changed
to a participle attached to "night." "Night" is
thus left without any grammatical connection with
the rest of the sentence, and is said to be in the
Nominative Absolute (Latin, "free").
Other examples of the nominative absolute are:

The sea being smooth, we went for a sail.

Bruce lay down, his heart [being] heavy with sorrow.

The ceremony [having been] completed, we dispersed.

Caution. The nominative absolute must not be con-
foimded with constructions in which a participle is loosely
attached to the subject of a sentence in the appositive rela-
tion: as, ''Hearing a noise in the street, I went to the
window.''

The partidple belonging to a nominative absolute may be
omitted, but the nominative itself may not; otherwise the
participle will be left dangling, apparently attached to the
nearest substantive. For example, in the incorrect sentence,'
"Crossing the ferry, my hat blew off," "crossing" seems to^
be attached to "hat," which is not intended.

Exercise 256

Make a list of the Participles in the following senA
fences, and tell how each is iised:

1. Hearing a shout, she ran to the door.

2. We saw a schoolhouse standing by the road.

3. The fire having gone out, the room grew cold.

4. The children stood watching them out of the town.

5. Surrounded by friends, she breathed freely again.

320 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there
wondering, fearing.

7. Unwarmed by any sunset light.
The gray day darkened into night.

8. Away they dash'd through Temple Bar,
Their red cloaks flowing free.

9. Sweet in her green dell the flower of beauty slumbers,
Lull'd by the faint breezes sighing through her hair.

10. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a

soldier lay,
Tom with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow
his life away.

vn. Infinitives

An Infinitive is a form of the verb that partakes
of the nature of the noun (94) .

224. Nature of Infinitives. Infinitives are inter-
mediate between verbs and nouns. They are used,
not to assert an action, but to natne it. They express
action, being, or state, and take the same comple-
ments and modifiers as the verbs from which they
are formed; but they have the constructions of
nouns. They differ from verbs in not being instru-
ments of assertion ; they differ from nouns in having
the complements and modifiers of verbs. An
infinitive is a "verb in a substantival aspect."

The name "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers
to the fact that the action, being, or state expressed by an
infinitive is usually not limited to a particular subject or

OF VERBS 321

time: as, "To climb steep hills requires strength and en-
durance."

The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms of the
verb, which are limited to a particular subject and time,
and take the person and number of their subject, are often
called Finite ("limited") verbs.

225, Form of Infinitives. With regard to form,
infinitives are of two principal kinds:

1. The Root-Infinitive, which always has the same form
as the root or simple form of the verb: as, "Better wear out
than rust out"; "You need not waUJ*

The root-infinitive is usually called simply the Infinitive.

2. The Infinitive in -ing, formed from the root of the
verb by adding "-ing": as, "She imderstands boiling an egg
better than anybody else."

The infim'tive in "-ing" is preferably called the Gerund.
The root-infinitive is often preceded by "to": as, "It is
hetter to wear out than to rust out"; "I prefer to wait,'^

226. "To" before the Root-Infinitive. Originally
^*to-' before the root-infinitive denoted purpose, and
always had the force of a preposition, as it still has
in many expressions: as, "Boats to let" {i.e., '^or
letting"); "He came to see us" (i.e., ^'for seeing").

In these sentences "to let" and "to see" are really
prepositional phraseSy used as adjectives or adverbs
Other examples are :

Adjective Phrase: "Bread to eaf' {i.e., "/(?r eating").
Adverbial Phrase: "We grieve to hear it" {i.e., at hear-
ing"); "He is ashamed to beg'' {i.e., "(?/ begging").

In many other modem expressions "to" before
the root-infinitive has no other value than to mark

322 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

the following word as an infinitive: as, "Te? bear
our fate is to conquer it." Here "to" resembles an
inflection, and is called the Sign of the Infinitive.

"To" as a sign of the infinitive is not used after
auxiKary verbs, and in many other cases that are
learned by observation. Examples are:

(i) "iwnig(?."

(2) "You dare not do it."

(3) "She heard him cry.^^

(4) "He had better start now."

Exercise 257

1. Review Exercise 115.

2. Make a list of the Infinitives in the following
sentences:

1. Day after day the labor's to be done.

2. Barbara's grandmother taught her to read and write.

3. The purpose of our army and navy is to preserve
peace.

4. To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step
toward knowledge.

5. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested.

6. The secret of life is not to do what one likes to doj
but to try to like what one has to do.

7. No man e'er felt the halter draw
With good opinion of the law.

8. The time has come, the Walrus said,
To talk of many things.

OF VERBS 323

9. You can never teach either oak or beech
To be aught but a greenwood tree.

10. I heard the pulse of the besieging sea
Throb far away all night.

Exercise 258

Make a list of the Gerunds in the following sen-
tences ^ and tell the constriiction of each:

1. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean.

2. There should be time for being and knowing as well
as for doing.

3. Being in a ship is being in a jail, with the chance of
being drowned.

4. Being convinced of one's folly is often a great step
towards wisdom.

5. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual
means of preserving peace.

6. The fairest action of our human life
Is scorning to revenge an injury.

7. Rest is not quitting the busy career,
Rest is in fitting one's self to one's sphere.

8. If eyes were made for seeing,
Then beauty is its own excuse for being.

227, Phrasal Infinitives. With the infinitives of
"be" and "have" as auxiliaries we form certain
Phrasal Infinitives, active and passive, correspond-
ing to some tense forms of the indicative : as,

324 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Active

Present Progressive: "I expect to be writing letters."
Past: "I am sorry to have written so poorly/'

'*He was reproved for having written it."
Past Progressive: "I ought to have been writing my exerdse."

"His arm was cramped from his having
been writing all morning."

Passive

Present: "The exercise must be written"

"She disliked being called^ proud."

Past: "The exercise ought to have been written.**

"She is angry at having been called^
proud."

228. Uses of fhe Tenses of the Infinitive. A

Present Infinitive denotes action which is incomplete
at the time expressed by the principal verb: as, "He
is trying to write now" ; "He tried to write yesterday" ;
"He will try to write tomorrow." You observe that
the infinitive does not change; yet the time referred
to changes with that of the principal verb.

A Past Infinitive is properly used to denote
action which is completed at the time expressed by
the principal verb: as, "Alfred is said to have drawn
up a body of laws"; "I felt glad to have seen Niagara
Falls"; "I shall be glad to have finished my task."

Exception. "Ought," "must," and "should" (in the
sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past
time; and with these verbs distinctions of time are denoted
by changes in the form of the following infinitive, the pres-
ent forms denoting present time, and the past forms past

^Passive infinitives in "-ing*' are rare, occurring only with certain verbs.

OF VERBS 325

time: as, "You ought to go,*' "You ought to have gone**;
"He should be careful," "He should have been careful." A
similar. use of the infinitive forms to denote time is found
after "could" and "might" in some of their uses: as, "I
could go,** "I could have gone**; "You might answer,** "You
might have answered.**

Exercise 259

Tell which of the italicized farms is rights and give
the reason.

1. Lee intended to attack {to have attacked) at daybreak.

2. We meant to start (to have started) long ago.

3. It was his business to prevent (to have prevented) such an
accident.

4. He is said to lose (to have lost) ten dollars.

5. It would have been better to wait (to have waited).

6. He could not fail (have failed) to arouse (to have aroused)
suspicion.

Exercise 260

Write (i) three sentences containing the Present
Infinitive; (2) two containing the Past Infinitive
correctly ttsed.

229. Constructions of fhe Infinitive. The infini-
tive is common in the following constructions:

1. Subject of a Verb: as, ^* To find fault is easy"; *' Being
able to play the piano is not knowing music."

2. Predicate Infinitive: as, "Her greatest pleasure is to
raise flowers"; "His chief difficulty is learning to spell."

3. Direct Object: as, "He likes to read history"; "I hate
traveling alone."

326 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

4. Secondary Object: as, "His mother taught him to
read"

5. Retained Object: as, "He was taught to read and
write by his mother."

6. Appositive: as, "He has a fixed purpose; namely, to
get an education."

7. With a Preposition: as, "He had no choice but (i. e.
except) to obey."

8. Adjectival: as, "Boats to let"; "He is a boy to be
trusted."

9. Adverbial: as, "He came to see me"; "This is hard
to do"; "I was glad to see you."

ID. Infinitive Clause (230): as, "I S3.w him go^" ; "We
heard her cry" ; "I believe him to be honest"

230. Infinitive Clause. Compare the following
sentences:

{a) I think that he is honest,
(b) I think him to be honest.

In (a) the object of "think" is the clause "that
he is honest," in which "he" is the subject of the
verb "is"; in (b) the object of "think"* is, similarly,
"him to be honest," in which the objective "him*^
has the same relation to the infinitive "to be" that
the nominative "he," in the corresponding clause,
has to the verb "is." "Him," therefore, is called
the Subject of the Infinitive, and "him to be hon-
est" may be properly called an Infinitive Clause.

The subject of an infinitive is always in the
objective case.

OF VERBS 327

Other examples are :

"He ordered me to move on."

"The teacher saw her go"

"The colonel commanded the bridge to be burned"

"He declared them to be coimterfeit."

Exercise 261

Make a list of the Infinitives in the following sen-
tences, and tell the construction of each:

1. Study to' be quiet.

2. They heard a dog bark.

3. She stoops to conquer.

4. Teach me the way to die.

5. Americans like to travel.

6. We saw the balloon go up.

7. Now is our time to learn.

8. He is a boy to be trusted.

9. I believe him to be honest.

10. I was taught to tell the truth.

11. To neglect exercise is dangerous.

12. He is as able to work as any one.

13. His mother told him to bring some water.

14. England expects every man to do his duty.

15. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray.

16. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.

17. Of two evils, the less is always to be chosen.

18. 'Tis sweet to hear the watchdog's honest bark.

19. How weak are words to carry thoughts like mine.

20. His mind was wax to receive and marble to retain.

328 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

II.

21. To live in hearts we leave behind us is not to die.

22. The highest office of history is to preserve ideals.

23. Seldom has English statesmanship had such a tale to
tell.

24. The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be con-
scious of none.

25. The only argument available with an east wind is tc
put on your overcoat.

26. An Englishman is the imfittest person on earth tc
argue another person into slavery.

27. Under the greenwood tree
Who loves to lie with me?

28. I have no spur
To prick the sides of my intent.

29. I count life just a stuff

To try the soul's strength on.

30. Many loved Truth, and lavished life's best oil
Amid the dust of books to find her.

Exercise 262

Make a list of the Infinitives, Gerunds, and Par-
ticiples in the following sentences, and tell how each
is used:

1. The reward of a thing well done is to have done it.

2. Irving taught millions of his countrymen to love
England.

3. Members were astonished to recognize a broad phi-
losophy of poetry running through Burke's speeches.

4. Having been provided with ample means by his fond
mother, Harry Warrington set out to conquer England.

OF VERBS 329

5. I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempt-
ing wit and failing than in seeing a man tr3dng to leap over
a ditch and falling into it.

6. Having spoken of Longfellow's life, and the wide-
spread and beautiful influence of his verse, it only remains
for us to speak briefly of his poetry itself.

7. After being graduated from Bowdoin College in 1825,
Hawthorne spent twelve years in Salem, reading, writing
stories, many of which he burned, and becoming, in his own
familiar phrase, "the obscurest man of letters in America."

8. But suffer me to pace
Round the forbidden place.
Lingering a minute.

9. Here I come creeping, creeping ever3rwhere;

You cannot see me coming.

Nor hear my low sweet humming.

10. For memory, dwelling
On each proud swelling
Of the belfry, knelling

Its bold notes free.
Made the bells of Shandon
Soimd far more grand on
The pleasant waters

Of the river Lee.

Exercise 263

Write five sentences illustrating different uses of the
Infinitive; five illustrating uses of the Gerund.

vm. Conjugation

231. Conjugation Defined. It is often conven-
ient to have the different inflections of the verb
arranged in regular order.

330 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

The orderly arrangement of the inflections of a
verb is called Conjugation.

Definition. Conjugation is the orderly arrange-
ment of the inflection of verbs.

232. Conjugation of "Be."

The irregular

be" is conjugated as follows:

Indicatiye Mood

Present

I am.

We are.

You are (Thou art).

You are.

He is.

They are.

Past

I was.

We were.

You were (Thou wast, or wert).

You were.

He was.

They were.

Future

I shall be.

We shaU be.

You will be (Thou wilt be).

You will be.

He will be.

They will be.

Present Perfect

I have been. We have been.

You have been (Thou hast been). You have been.
He has been. They have been.

Past Perfect

I had been. We had been.

You had been (Thou hadst been). You had been.
He had been. They had been.

Future Perfect

I shall have been. We shall have been

You will have been You will have been.

(Thou wilt have been).

He will have been. They will have beau

OF VERBS

33X

Subjunctive Mood

(Often preceded by " if.")

Present

I be.

We be.

You be (Thou

be).

You be.

Hebe.

Past

They be.

I were.

We were.

You were (Thou wert).

You were.

He were.

Present Perfect

They were.

I have been.

We have been.

You have been (Thou have been).

You have been.

He have been.

Past Perfect

They have been.

I had been.

We had been.

You had been (Thou had been).

You had been.

He had been.

They had been.

Imperative Mood

Present

Be, do be.

Infinitives

Root-Infinitives

Present

Past

(To) be.

Gerunds

(To) have been

Present

Past

Being.

Participles

Having been.

Present

Past

Phrasal Past

Being.

Been.

Having been.

233. Conjugation of "Call." The conjugation of
the verb "call," which may be taken as a tjq^e of all
regular verbs, is given below. For the sake of
brevity, only the third person singular is given in

332

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

the indicative and subjunctive, since the other forms
may be easily supplied:

Active Voice

Indicative Mood

Present

Present Emphatic

Present Progressive

He calls.

He does call.

He is calling.

Past

Past Emphatic

Past Progressive

He called.

He did call.

He was calling.

Future

Future Progressive

He will call.

He will be calling.

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Progressive

He has called.

He has been calling.

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Progressive

He had called.

He had been calling.

Future* Perfect

Future Perfect Progressive

He will have called.

He will have been calling.

Present
He call.

Past
He called.

Present Perfect
He have called.

Past Perfect
He had called

Subjunctive Mood

(Often preceded by "if.")
Present Emphatic Present Progressive

He do call. He be calling.

Past Emphatic
He did call.

Past Progressive
He were calling.

Present Perfect Progressive
He have been calling

Past Perfect Progressive
He had been calling.

OF VERBS 333

Imperatiye Mood

Present Present Emphatic Present Progressive

Call Do call Be calling, do be calling.

Infinitives

Root-InfinUives
Present Present Progressive

(To) call. (To) be caQing.

Past Past Progressive

(To) have called. (To) have been calling.

Gerunds. •
Present Past Past Progressive

Calling. Having called. Having been calling.

Participles

Present Past Past Progressive

Calling. Having called. Having been calling.

Passive Voice

Indicative Mood
Present Present Progressive

He is called. He is being called.

Past Past Progressive

He was called He was being called.

Future

He will be called.

Present Perfect
He has been called.

Past Perfect

He had been called.
Futiire Perfect

He will have been called.

334

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Present
He be called.

Past
He were called.

Present Perfect
He have been called.

Past Perfect
He had been called.

Subjunctive Mood
(Often preceded by "if.")

Past Progressive
He were being called.

Present
Be called

Present
(To) be called

Present
Being called.

Imperative

Infinitives

Participles

Past

Called.

Present Emphatic

Do be called.

Past
(To) have been called.

Phrasal Past
Having been called.

234. How to Parse Verbs. To parse a verb, we
must give its —

(i) Class: whether transitive or intransitive, regular or
irregular.

(2) Principal parts.

(3) Voice.

(4) Mood,
(s) Tense.

(6) Person.

(7) Number.

(8) Construction.

OF VERBS 335

Example: The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be
conscious of none.

1. Should say is a verb phrase formed with the auxiliary
" should " from the transitive regular verb " say "; princi-
pal parts, " say," " said," " said "; active voice ; used to
express ideal certainty (217); first person, singular nimiber,
agreeing with its subject /.

2. Is is an intransitive irregular verb; principal parts,
"am," "was," "been"; indicative mood, present tense; third
person, singular nmnber, agreeing with the subject greatest,
which is an adjective used substantively.

3. To he is an intransitive irregular verb; principal parts,
"am," "was," "been"; infinitive mood, present tense, used
as predicate infinitive after is.

Exercise 264
Parse the Verbs in the following sentences :

1. She watches him as a cat would watch a mouse.

2. What is read twice is commonly better remembered
than what is transcribed.

3. A man may write at any time if he will set himself
doggedly to it.

4. A falcon, towering in her pride of place.
Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed.

5. Full fathom five thy father lies;

Of his bones are coral made;
Those are pearls that were his eyes;

Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a sea-change
Into something rich and strange.

336 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Exercise 265

(For Advanced Pupik.)

Parse the Verbs in the following sentences:

1. True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learned to dance;
'Tis not enough no harshness gives offense, —
The sound must seem an echo to the sense.

2. Of all the wonders that I yet have heard.

It seems to me most strange that men should fear;
Seeing that death, a necessary end,
Will come when it will come.

3. Had I but served my God with half the zeal
I served my king, he would not in mine age
Have left me naked to mine enemies.

4. Blandishments will not fascinate us, nor will threats
of a "halter" intimidate. For, under God, we are determined
that wheresoever, whensoever, or howsoever we shall be
called to make our exit, we wir die free men. — Josiah Quincy,
Jr.: "Observations on the Boston Port Bill, 1774."

5. Yesterday the greatest question was decided which
ever was debated in America; and a greater perhaps never
was, nor will be decided among men. A resolution was
passed without one dissenting colony, that these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent
States. — John Adams: Letter to Mrs. Adams, July 3, 1776.

Exercise 266

(Review.)

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs,
and Verbs in Exercise 256.

CHAPTER VIII

OF PREPOSITIONS

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
between a substantive and some other word (86).

235. Prepositions Classified. The following is
a list* of the prepositions in common use :

Simple Prepositions

after

down in over

ere of since

under

but

for off through up

from on till
Derivative Prepositions

with

aboard

athwart despite

saving, save

about

barring during

touching

above

before excepting,

toward, towards

across

behind except

throughout

against

below into

underneath

along

beneath notwith-

until

amidst, amid

beside, besides standing

unto

among,

between past

upon

amongst

betwixt pending

within

around, round

. beyond regarding

without

aslant

concerning respecting

^To the Teacher. This list is for reference, not for memorizing.
The distinction between Simple and Derivative prepositions is not im-
portant in elementary study^ and both kinds may be classified as Sim-
ple, if desired.

337

338 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Compound Prepositions

according to by the way of in opposition to

apart from for the sake of in place of

as for in accordance with in preference to

as regards in addition to in spite of

as to in case of instead of

because of in compliance with on account of

by means of in consequence of out of

by reason of in front of with regard to

Exercise 267

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of such
Prepositions as the teacher may^ select.

236. Words with Prepositions. The word or
group of words used with a preposition to form a
phrase is in the objective case. It is conmionly a
noun or a pronoun ; but it may be any word or group
of words used substantively: as,

(i) Noun: Come into the garden,

(2) Pronoun: I stood behind hint,

(3) Adverb: I never felt it till now,

(4) Adjective: Lift up your eyes on high,

(5) Prepositional phrase: He stepped from behind th0 tree.

(6) Infinitive phrase: None knew thee but /(? /(we /Ae«.

(7) Clause: JJisXtntowhatI say.

Exercise 268

Write five sentences of your awn in which the prepo-
sition is used with (i) a Noun, (2) a Pronoun, (3) an
Adverb, (4) an Adjective, (5) a Prepositional Phrase.

OF PREPOSITIONS 339

237. Prepositional Phrases. A phrase consist-
ing of a preposition and a substantive is called a
Prepositional Phrase.

If the prepositional phrase modifies a noun or a
pronoun, it is an Adjective Prepositional Phrase : as,
"The wages oj sin is death." If it modifies a verb,
an adjective,or an adverb,it is an Adverbial Prep-
ositional Phrase : as, "Man shall not live by bread
alone.'^

Occasionally a prepositional phrase is used substantively:
as, ^^Over the fence is out." In such cases there is usually an
ellipsis of some word which the prepositional phrase modifies.

Exercise 269

Write two sentences containing Adjective Preposi-
tional Phrases; three containing Adverbial Preposi-
tional Phrases,

Exercise 270

(Review.)

Make a list of the Prepositional Phrases in Exercise
41, and tell whether they are Adjective or Adverbial.

238. Position of Prepositions. Ordinarily a
preposition is placed before its substantive: as, "I
sprang to the windowJ^ Sometimes, however, it is
put after its substantive: as, ^^What are we coming
to?"

The theory, advanced by some grammarians, that a sen-
tence should not end with a preposition, is not supported

340 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

by the practice of the best writers, as may be seen from
the following representative quotations:

"Some little toys that girls are fond (?/." — Swift.
"You see what my tricks have brought me to?^^ —

Goldsmith,
"What god doth the wizard pray to?" — Hawthorne.

"Rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not (?/." — Shakespeare.

The following sentences are entirely in accord with the
best English idiom:

What are you looking at? What are you thinking of?
What did you ask for? That is all I came for.

239. Prepositions Used as Adverbs. Some of the
simplest prepositions, such as "in" "on," "off,"
"up," "to," were originally adverbs; and in modem
English many of them are used adverbially.

1. Sometimes a preposition is used adverbially as art
inseparable adjunct of the verb: as, "She carried off the prize";
"The people laughed at Fulton's steamboat." The adverbial
force of such prepositions is shown by the fact that they
stay with the verb when the sentences are changed into the
passive form: as, "Fulton's steamboat was laughed at by
the people." From this last sentence it is dear that in the
former sentence, "The people laughed at Fulton's steam-
boat," "steamboat" is the object, not of the preposition
"at," but of the transitive verb "laughed at."

2. Sometimes a preposition becomes an adverb through the
omission of its substantive: as,

It was nothing to joke about. (Omission of "which.")
That is all I ask for. (Omission of "that.")

OF PREPOSITIONS 341

240. Special Use of Some Prepositions. Prepo-
sitions play a very important part in our language,
and have many idiomatic uses. Most of these can
be learned only by observing the custom of good
speakers and writers.

The following notes on some special uses of a few
prepositions may prove helpful:

At, in: Before names of places to denote "where/' at
is used when the place is viewed as a mere point; in is used
when the speaker desires to make prominent the idea "within
the boimds of*': as, "He arrived at Liverpool in the morning
and remained in that city two days."

Compare to, compare with: We compare one thing to
another to show similarity: as, "Burke compared the parks
of a city to the lungs of the body." We compare one thing
with another to show either similarity or difference, especially
difference: as, ^^Compare our comfort with their poverty."

Confide in, confide to: Confide in means "trust in": as,
"In thy protection I confide,^^ Confide to means "intrust
to": as, "He confided the secret to his mother."

Differ from, differ with: We use differ from when we
refer to imlikeness between objects; when we refer to dis-
agreement in opinion we use either differ from or differ with:
as, "These two books differ entirely /r(?w each other" ; "I differ
from or mth the honorable gentleman on that point."

Different from: According to the best usage the proper
preposition after "different" and "differently" is from, not
than: as, "He is very different from his brother."

Of: Of is often used to denote identity; and then the
prepositional phrase has the force of an appositive: as,
"the city of St. Louis," "the State of Ohio," "the island of
Cuba."

342 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Wait for y wait an: Wait for means "await": as, "We will
wait for you at the corner." Wait on means "attend": as,
"At dinner the women waited on the men."

Exercise 271

Fill the following blanks with appropriate Preposi-
tiofts:

1. The king confided his ministers.

2. We stayed London two weeks the Victoria

Hotel.

3. The marriage customs of the Russians are very different

ours.

4. He says that he shall be back in an hour; but we cannot
wait him.

5. Admiral Dewey remained the Philippines a year

after his victory Manila Bay.

6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot
the youngest of their number.

7. We arrived Paris in the evening. that city

we stayed the Hotel Normandie.

8. He who compares his own condition that of others

will find that he has many reasons for thinking himself
fortunate.

241. How to Parse Prepositions. To parse a
preposition one must give:
(i) Its substantive.
(2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces.

Exercise 272

Parse the prepositions in Exercise 57.

Model: Down the street come the boys.

Down is a simple preposition used with the noun street
The prepositional phrase is adverbial, modifying the verb
come.

CHAPTER rX

OF CONJUNCTIONS

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or
groups of words (87) .

Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from prep-
ositions and relative pronouns, which are also connecting
words. A preposition begins a prepositional phrase; a
relative pronoun stands for a noun with which it connects a
modifying clause; a conjunction merely connects clauses,
phrases, or words that have the same grammatical con-
struction.

Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning of a
paragraph to connect it with what precedes.

242. Conjunctions Classified. The following is
a list of conjunctions in common use:'

Simple Conjunctions

although

and

because

but

for

however

lest

nevertheless

nor

since

still

than

that

therefore

though

unless

when

wherefore

whether

while

yet

>This list is not intended for memorizing. With regard to the words which
times conjunctions, sometimes adverbs or prepositions, like *'since," "when,"
"until," etc., see Section 90 and footnote.

343

axcsome-
"while/'

344 THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Compound Conjunctions

as if as sure as in order that

as though except that for as much as

as long as in case that provided that
as soon as

According to their use, conjunctions may be
arranged in two general classes :

(i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions, which connect words,
phrases, or co-ordinate clauses: as, "Sink or swim"; "By
the people and for the people"; "I ran fast, but I missed the
train."

(2) Subordinating Conjunctions, which introduce subor-
dinate clauses: as, "I came because you called me"; "Guy
is older than Lewis [is]"; "Galileo taught that the eardi
moves"; " Unless it rains, we shall all go."

243. Cor relative Conjunctions. Conjunctions are
sometimes used in pairs, the first of the pair indi-
cating that something will presently be added: as,
"His conduct was neither wise nor just"; ^^Both
John and Henry may go with you." Conjimctions
used in pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions.

The most common correlative conjimctions are:
"both— and," "either— or," "neither— nor," "whether
— or," "not only — ^but also."

When conjunctions are used as correlatives, each
of the correlated words should be so placed as to
indicate clearly what ideas are to be connected in
thought.

This principle is violated in "He not only visited

OF CONJUNCTIONS 34S

Paris, but Berlin also.^^ In this sentence the position
of "not only" before the verb "visited'* leads one to
expect some corresponding verb in the second part
of the sentence; but the two connected words are
"Paris" and "BerUn." "Visited" apphes to both.
This meaning is clearly indicated by putting "not
only" before "Paris": thus, "He visited not only
Paris, but Berlin also.^^

As a rule, the word after the first correlative
should be the same part of speech as the word after
the second correlative.

Exercise 273

Write five sentences of your own illustrating the
correct position of (i) ^^both — a«J," (2) ^'either — or,^^
(3) ^^neither — nor^^ (4) ^^whether — (?r," (5) ^^not
only — but also J ^

244. How to Parse Conjunctions. To parse a
conjunction we must tell:

(i) Its dass.

(2) What it connects.

Exercise 274

Review Exercises 104 and 105.

Exercise 275

Parse the Conjunctions in Exercises 264 and 265.

CHAPTER X

OF INTERJECTIONS

An Interjection is a word used to express sudden
or strong feeling, but not forming part of a sen-
tence (89).

245. Classification of Interjections. Interjections
may be arranged in three general classes:

1. Simple Interjections y which are never anything else than
interjections: as, "Oh!" "eh!" "hurrah!" "pooh!" "pshaw!"
"tut!"

2. Derivative Interjections y which are other parts of speech
used as interjections: as, "Mercy!" "farewell!" "nonsense!"

3. Compound Interjections y which are groups of words
used as single interjections: as, "Goodness gracious!"

Exercise 276

Classify the Interjections in Exercise 107.

346

LIST OF VERBS

The forms given in the following list are all supported by
good usage; but they are not in all cases the only authorized
forms. For full information on the subject, students must
have recourse to the best dictionaries.

Present

Past

Past Participle

abide

abode

alight

alighted, alit

arise

arose

arisen

am (be)

was

been

awake

awoke, awaked

awaked

bear ("bring forth")

bore

bom

bear ("carry")

bore

borne

beat

beaten

begin

began

begim

behold

beheld

bend

bent

bereave

bereft, bereaved

beseech

besought

bet

bid ("command")

bade

bidden

bid ("offer money")

bid

bind

bound

bite

bit

bitten

bleed

bled

blend

blent, blended

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

breed

bred

bring

brought

347

348

TJST OF VERBS

Present

Past

Past Participle

build

built

burst

buy

bought

cast

catch

caught

chide

chid

chidden

choose

chose

chosen

cleave ("adhere")

cleaved

cleave ("split")

clove, cleft

cloven, cleft

cling

clung

come

came

come

cost

creep

crept

cut

deal

dealt

dig

dug, digged

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

dress

drest, dressed

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

dwell

dwelt

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

feel

felt

fight

fought

find

found

flee

fled

fling

flung

fly

flew

flown

forbear

forbore

forborne

forget

forgot

forgotten

forsake

forsook

forsaken

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

LIST OF VERBS

Present

Past

Past Particip)

gild

gilt, gilded "

gilt, gilded

give

gave

given

went

gone

grind

ground

grow

grew

grown

hang

hxmg, hanged'

himg, hanged'

have

had

hear

heard

heave

hove, heaved*

hove*, heaved

hew

hewed

hewn

hide

hid

hidden

hit

. hit

hold

held

hurt

keep

kept

kneel

knelt, kneeled

knit

knit, knitted

know

knew

known

lade

laded

laded, laden

lay

laid

lead

led

leave

left

lend

lent

let

Ue ("recline")

lay

lain

Ue ("tell a falsehood'

Ued

lied

light

Ughted. lit

lighted, lit

lose

lost

make

made

mean

meant

meet

met

pay

paid

put

quit

quit, quitted

349

i" Hanged" is used only of execution by hanging.

f"Sh€ heaved a sigii." "The crew hove the cargo overboard."

3SO

LIST OF

VERBS

Present

Past

Past Participle

read

rend

rent

rid

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

rive

rived

riven, rived

run

ran

rim

say-

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

seethe (intransitive)

seethed

seethe (transitive)

seethed,

sod

seethed, sodden

seU

sold

send

sent

set

shake

shook

shaken

shed

shine

shone

shoe

shod

shoot

shot

show

showed

shown

shred

shred, shredded

shrink

shrank

shrunk

shrive

shrove, j

shrived

shriven, shrived

shut

sing

sang

sung

sink

sank

simk

sit

sat

slay

slew

slain

sleep

slept

slide

slid

slidden, slid

sling

slung

slimg

slink

shmk

slunk

slit

sUt

smell

smelt, smelled

LIST OF VERBS

4
\

Present

Past

Past Participle

smite

smote

smitten

sow

sowed

sowed, sown

speak

spoke

spoken

speed

sped

spell

spelt, spelled

spend

spent

spill

spilled, spilt

spin

spun

spit

split

spoil

spoiled, spoilt

spread

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stave

stove, staved

stay

stayed, staid

steal

stole

stolen

stick

stuck

sting

stung

stink

stunk

strew

strewed

strewn

stride

strode

stridden

strike

struck

struck, stricken

string

strung

strive

strove

striven

swear

swore

sworn

sweep

swept

swell

swelled

swelled, swollen

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

tear

tore

torn

teU

told

think

thought

thrive

throve, thrived

thriven, thrived

351

352 LIST OF VERBS

Present

Past

Past Participle

throw

threw

thrown

thrust

tread

trod

trodden

wake

woke, waked

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove

woven

weep

wept

wet

win

won

wind

wound

wring

wrung

write

wrote

written

INDEX

The numerals refer to pages.

PAGB

/4, preposition^ 254

y4 or an, articles 132,244

choice between 250

meaning of 251-253

About to 297

Absolute nominative, 185, i99i

318-319

Accusative case 181

Active voice 273-275

Address, nominative of . . . 99. 185
Adjectives, defined .... 1 2(^-130

as nouns 190

classified 244

singular and plural 245

comparison 245-249

use of comparative and super-
lative 248-249

position of 255

substitutes for 255

parsing 255

adjective or adverb 261

Adjunct accusative, use of

term 53 n.

Adverbial objective 185

Adverbs, defined 1 33-135

nouns as 185, 264

classified 257-258

form of 258-259

comparison 260

adjective or adverb 261

position 262

double negatives 264

substitutes 264-265

how to parse 265

prepositions used as 340

Afnrniative sentences .... 18
Agent with passive verbs ... 277

Although, verb with 31S

Analysis, defined 61-62

Angles 2

Anglo-Sazon,originof name . . 2
relation to modem English . . '4-5
Antecedent of pronoun . . 128,195
Anybody, number and gender of,

217-218

Anybody else's 183

Apostrophe and 5, formation of

plural by adding 175

in possessives 182

not used in possessive case of
pronouns 212

PAGE

Appositives 80-81

punctuation 81

clauses used as 95, xoo

case of 190

Articles, defined . . . 132. 244, 250

origin of 250

choice between an or a . . . . 250
definite and indefinite distin-
guished 251

uses of a or an 252

uses of 1^0 252

not every </i0 or a an article . . 254

As, relative 237-238

il5^, takes two substantives. . . 79

At, in, distinguished 341

Auxiliary verbs, defined ... 272
to express mood-ideas . . 3x2-313

Be 37-38

as passive auxiliary 277

inflection for person . . . 282-283
as progressive auxiliary . . . 293-294
forms in the subjunctive . . . 308

conjugation 330-331

Biblical language, pronouns in,

202-204

Both — and 344-345

British words 5

But, relative 238

Call, conjugation 331-334

Can 272

Cardinal numerals 244

Case, names i7$>-i82

possessive or genitive .... 182

uses of nominative 185

uses of objective 185

uses of the possessive .... 189

double possessive 189

in apposition 190

of personal pronouns . 198, 203. 205
of interrogative pronouns . 223-225
of relative pronouns . 232, 234-235

Causative verbs 26^270

Changes in our language . . 8-ie

353

354

INDEX

PAGB

Glauses, defined 70-71

as modifiers 70-72

punctuation 72

modifying, classified .... 77-78

as subjects 93

as complements 94

as appositives 95

principal and subordinate . 107-108

co-ordinate 108

subordinate, uses .... lo^^iio

independent in

as nouns 190

relative 225^-231

punctuation 231

adverbial 265

conditional 313

conclusional 313

infinitive 326-327

Collective nouns 167. 217

Common f^ender, not used,

169 n., 214 n.

Common nouns 166

Comparative degree, defined . 246
Compare to, compare with, distin-
guished 341

Comparison, of adjectives . 245-249

of adverbs 260

Complements, of the verb, de-
fined 46

- subjective . . 47t 9if 94> 185, 199

object 48

objective S3-S3f i8s

several, with one verb . . . 5S-S6

phrases used as 91

clauses used as. . . . 94,109-110

case of X85, 199

Complete predication, verbs of.

4S. a67

Complete subject 21, 34

Complete verbs 267

Complex sentences, defined, X07-110
Compound nouns, plural of . 174
Compound personal pronouns,

219-221

relative pronouns .... 23$>-240

Compound sentences, defined, zii

classified 111-112

punctuation 114-115

improper Z15

Compound subject 26

predicate 26

Compound words, formation of, 164
use of , to denote gender ... 170

plural of 174

possessive of 182

Condition, contrary to fact . . 313

neutral 313

more vivid, less vivid 314

Conditional sentences . . 313-315
Confide in, confide to, distinguished, 341
Conjugation, new or weak. . . 289

old or strong 290

defined 329-330

he 330-331

caU 331-334

PAGB

Conjunctions, defined .... 143

position I44i343

distinguished from prepositions
and relative pronouns . . . 343

classified 343-344

simple and compound . . 343-344
co-ordinating and subordinat-
ing 344

correlative 344-345

parsing 345

Conjunctive adverbs 258

Connecting words . . 112, 343-345
Construction, defined . . . 184-185

of nouns 184-190

of pronouns I99. 212

of verbs 283-284,286

of participles 318

of infinitives 325-326

Co-ordinate clauses 108

conjunctions 344

Correlative conjunctions . 344-345

Danish words 6-7

Dative case 181, 185, 199

Declarative sentences, defined . 18

punctuation 19

most common 20

Declension, defined 184

of nouns 184

of pronouns of the first person . 198
ofpronounsofthesecondperson, 203
of pronouns of the third person, 205
of interrogative pronouns . . . 224

of relative pronouns 232

Definite article 251-252

Demonstrative pronouns . 222-223

Derivation, defined 163

Derivative, defined 163

Descriptive relative clause . 230-231

adjectives 244

Determinative relative clause, 230 n.

Diagrams 62-63

Differ from, differ vfith, distin-
guished! 341

Differentfrom 341

Direct object, defined 48

case of 185, 199

Direct questions 326-227

Do, auxiliary 296

Don't, doesn't 285-286

Double possessive 189

negatives 264

Each, number and gender of, 2x7-218
Editorial use oiwe 199

oursdf 220

Either, number and gender of, 217-2 1 8
Either — or, verbs with 286

position of 344-345

INDEX

355

PAGE

Elliptical sentences, deBned . . 119

Emphatic sentences, verb

phrases in 39-40

Emphatic tense forms . . 296, 297

Ent^lish, origin of name .... z

early home of 2

spread of 3

changes in 4,8-10

growth of 5-8

good, defined 11

^ess, use of, to denote gender . . 170

Everybody, number and gender of,

217-218

Exclamation point ... 19, 102, 146

Exclamations, defined zoz

punctuation Z02

case of . Z85. Z99

Exclamatory sentences, defined , z 8
punctuation Z9

Expletive use of »'< .... 209-210
of there 263

FaU, fell, distinguished 269

Feminine t^ender, defined . Z68-Z69

forms Z69-Z7Z

in pronouns 205,2x2-2x5

in personification .... 215-2x6

Finite verb, defined 321

Foreign plurals Z77-Z78

Foreiiln words, proportion of, in

English 8

Forward-moving relative

clause 230-23Z

Future perfect tense 292

progressive 294

Future tense, defined 288

formation 291

shall or will 291

conjugation 330-334

Gender, defined .... Z68-169

of nouns Z68-Z72

ways of denoting .... Z69-Z7Z
I)ersonal pronouns . . 205,2x2-2x5
relation to pronouns . . . 2x2-2x5
in personification .... 215-2x6

Generic article 252

Genitive case . . z8o, z8o n., 181 n.

Gerund Z57,32X

Going to 297

Good English, defined .... zz

Grammar, defined z i

uses of ZZ-Z2

grammars old and new .... Z2

Have, as auxiliary of perfect . . 292

He, constructions Z99, 212

declined 205

gender 205, 2Z2-2X5

PAGE

Her, declined 205

gender , 205, 2x2-2x5

construction, as objective . . . 205

as possessive 2x2

Hers, case 205

gender 205,2x2-2x5

construction 2x2

Herself 2X9-22X

Him, case 205

gender 205, 2x2-215

construction 2x2

Himself 219-221

His, case 205

gender 205, 212-2x5

construction 2x2

Historical present 302

Hyphen in compound word . . Z64

I, classified Z96

declined Z98

how written Z98

use Z99

Idea, defined Z5

//, verbs with 3Z3-3Z5

Imperative mood, defined ... 307

use 3ZZ

Imperative sentences, defined . z8

pimctuation of Z9

predicate in 22

Impersonal subject .... 208-209

sentence 208-209

object 2ZZ

Imported words 8

Improper compound sentences, z 1 5

In, at, distinguished 34 z

Incomplete predication, verbs

of 45-46, 267

Indefinite relative pronouns . . 240

pronouns 24Z

article 25Z-253

Independent clauses zxz

Independent elements, de-
fined 99

vocatives 99-zoo

exclamations zox

parenthetical 102

pleonastic Z03-X04

punctuation of Z03

nominative absolute, Z05 n., Z85,

Z99, 3I8-3Z9

case of 199

Indicative mood, defined . . . 307

use 30S

in conditional sentences . 314-315
Indirect object, defined . . . 78-79

case of Z85. 199

in passive sentences 28 z

Indirect questions .... 226-227
Infinitives, defined . . z 54, z 5 7, 320

form of Z57, 32Z

root infinitive and gerund . . zs7
phrasal Z58, 323-324

356

INDEX

PAGB

Inflnldyct, predicate noun after 185

•'subject of 185,199

• ' as nouns 190

predicate nouns after 199

nature of 320-321

tenses 324-325

constructions 325-326

infinitive clause 326-327

Inflection, defined 162

of nouns 184

of personal pronouns . 198, 203. 205
of demonstrative pronouns . . 223
of interrogative pronouns . . . 224

of relative pronouns 232

of adjectives 247

of verbs 282-283

'ingf infinitive in 157, 321

other words in 159

Intensive pronoun, defined . . 220

Interjections 146, 346

InteiTogative adverbs .... 258
Interro^atiye pronouns, de-
fined 223-224

declined 224

who or v/hom 224-225

in indirect questions 226

Interrogative sentences, de-
fined 18

punctuation of 19

predicate in 22

verb phrases in 39~40

Interrogative tense forms . . 296
Intransitive verbs .... 367-270
Inverted order in sentences . . 23
Irregular comparison .... 348
Irregular verbs, defined .... 390

list of 347-352

7f, expletive 209-210

if, pronoun, classified 195

case '. , 199-200

declined 205

gender 205, 212-214

as impersonal subject . . 308-209

special uses 211

Its I95> 205, 212

Itself 219-221

Llnklng'verbs . . ,

4y, adverbs ending in

PAGE

. 37, 267
359, 260

Jutes

Language, defined i

changes in 4, 8-10

Latin words, found in Britain . 6

from books 7

Laugh at 268

Lay, lie, distinguished 270

Let 272

Lie, lay, distinguished 270

Limiting adjectives 244

adverbs 258

Majestic use oiwe 199

ourself 320

Masculine gender, defined . 168-169
forms 169-171

{>ronouns 305,212-215
n personification .... 215-216

May 372,309

Me, classified 195

case 198-200

constructions i9$>-20O

Might 309

Mine 198

use 212

Missionarv words 6

Mixed verbs 290

Modifiers, defined 57-59

distinguished from comple-
ments 60

phrases used as 65-66

clauses used as 70-71

themselves modified .... 83-84
subordinate clauses used as . . 109

Mood, defined 306-307

indicative 308

subjunctive 308-311

imperative 311

mood-ideas expressed by auxil-
iaries 312-313

in conditional sentences . 313-315

Must 373,324-325

My, classified I95

case 198-200

construction 212

Myself 319-321

Natural order in sentences. . . 33

Negative sentences 18

verb phrases in 39-40

N^ative tense forms 396

Negatives, double 264

Neither, number and gender of,

317-318
Neither — nor, verbs with .... 286

position of 344-3^5

Neuter gender, defined .... 169

in pronouns 205, 213-214

Neutral condition 313

New conjugation 289

No, adverb 257

Nobody, number and gender of . 218
Nominative, of address . . 99, 185

defined 181

absolute . . . 185, 199. 318-319

uses of 185

of personal pronouns . . . 199-200
of interrogative pronouns ... 224
of relative pronouns . 232, 234-235

INDEX

357

PAGB

Non-ezclamafory sentences . i8

NoTt verbs with 286

Norman-French words .... 7

Notional verbs 272

Not only — &u<a/5c, position of, 344-345
Nouns, included in term substan-
tive 35

defined 125-126

proper 165-166

common x66

collective 167

gender 168-172

number 172-179

case 179-184

declension 184

construction 184-190

in apposition ......... 190

substitutes for 190

how to parse 190-191

person 195-196

Number, defined 172

formation of plural . . . 173-175

two plurals 176

foreign plurals I77

divided usage 178

personal pronouns .... 217-218

relative pronouns 232

adjectives -. . . . 245

verbs 282-287

Numeral adjectives 244

Object, direct 48

retained 185. 281

case of 185. 199. 235

Object, Indirect, defined . . 78-79

case of 185, 199

in passive sentences 281

Object, secondary .... 79. 185
Object of preposition, use of

term 140

Objective, adverbial 185

Objective case, defined .... 182

uses of 185

subject of infinitive ... 185, 199
of personal pronouns . . . 199-200
of interrogative pronouns ... 224
of relative pronouns . 232. 235. 240
Objective complement . 52-53.185

Of 187-188, 341

Old conjugation 290

OldEngUish 4-5

Omission, of subject, 22, 238-239, 311

of words 119-120

Only, position of ^ 262

Or, verbs with 286

Ordinal numerals 244

Ought 272,324-325

Our, ours I95. 198

use 212

Our self, ourselves 220

Own 221

PAGE

Parenthetical expressions, 102-103

Parsing, nouns 190-191

pronouns 208

adjectives 355

adverbs 265

verbs 334-33S

prepositions 342

conjunctions 345

Participles, defined . . J54-155. 316

distinguishing marks 155

present and past 155

phrasal 15s. 317-318

nature of 316

form 317

construction 31ft

Parts of speech, distinguished,

125-161
summarized 151

Parts of verb, principal . . . 297-299

Passive voice, defined 274

form 277

indirect objects in passive sen-
tences 281

* Past participle 155, 3i7

Past perfect tense 292

progressive 293-295

Past tense, 8imf>le form, 288, 289-290

defined 288

progressive 293-295

emphatic, interrogative, and

negative 296-297

misused forms 298-299

conjugation 330-334

Perfect pro^esslve tense . 294-295

Perfect tenses 292-295

misused forms 298-299

uses of the present perfect . . 302

Person, of nouns and pronouns, 195-196
of verbs 282-287

Personal pronouns, defined, 196-197

first person 198

uses of nominative forms . . . 199
uses of objective forms .... 199

second person 202-204

third person 204-205

special uses of «7 .... 208-21 x
uses of possessive forms . . . 212
use of gender forms . . . 212-215
use of number forms . . . 217-218

compound 219-221

as reflexives 220

Personification, gender in . 215-216

Phrasal participles . . Z55. 317-318

infinitives 158, 323-324

comparison 247

tenses 291-292

Phrase, verb 39-40

as modifier 65-06

as subject 90

as complement 91

as noun 190

adverbial 265

prepositional 339

Pleonasm Z03-104

358

INDEX

PAGB

Plural number, defined .... 172

formation of 173-176

two plurals 176

foreign plurals 177-178

divided usage 178

formation of possessive case in . 182

pronouns 198, 203, 205

adjectives 245

verbs 282-285

Poetic language, pronouns in,

202-204

Position, of subject 22-23

of prepositions . . . 141,339-340

of- conjunctions 144,343

of adjectives 255

of adverbs 262

Positive degree, defined .... 246

Possessive case, defined .... 181

form of 182-183

use of 187

V5. preposition 187-188

double Z89

in apposition 190

of personal pronouns 212 .

of interrogative pronouns ... 224
of relative pronouns . . . 232, 235

Predicate, defined 21

in interrogative and^mperative

sentences 22

position of 22-23

compound 26,27

distinguished from verb . . . 45-46

Predicate noun 185

pronoun IS>9

Predication, verbs of complete

and incomplete . . . 45-46, 267

Prefix 163

Prepositional phrase, defined,

139-140
classified 339

Prepositions, defined . . . 139-140
object of ... . 140, 185, 199, 338

position 141, 339-340

possessive case vs 187-188

classified 337-338

words with . 338

as adverbs 340

special uses of some 341

parsing 342

Present participle .... 155. 3i7

Present perfect tense 292

progressive 294. 295

misused forms 298-299

uses 302

Present tense, simple . . . 288-289

progressive 294

emphatic, interrogative, and

negative 296-297

uses 301-302

conjugation 330-334

Principal clause 107-108

parts of verbs 297-299

Progressive tenses i . . . . 293-295

Pronominal adjectives, i95t 223,

224, 241, 244

PAGB

Pronouns, defined .... 127-128

antecedent 128, 195

personal 195-218

parsing 208

compound personal or reflexive,

219-221

demonstrative 222-223

interrogative 223-228

relative 228-239

compound relative .... 239-240
indefinite 241

Proper nouns, defined . . 165-166
plural of 174

Punctuation, of sentences ... 19

of phrases 66-67

of clauses 72

of appositives 81

of vocatives 100

of exclamations 102, 146

of independent elements . . . 103
of compound sentences . . . 114-11S
of relative clauses 231

Questions, direct and indirect,

226-227

RaisCt rise, distinguished .... 270
Reflexive pronouns .... 219-221

Regular verb, defined 289

Relative clauses 229-231

Relative pronouns, defined, 228-229

distinguished 231-233

case 234-235

whose or of which 237

as and but 237-238

omitted 238-239

compound 239-240

indefinite 340

as subjects of verbs . . . 286-287
Restrictive relative clause . 330-23 1

Retained object 185, 38s

Rise, raise, distinguished .... 370
Root infinitive . . .157,158,321-322

Same as, same that, distinguished,

237-338

Saxons 3

Secondary object .... 79> 185
Semicolon, use of, in compound

sentences ........ 114-115

Sentences, defined i, 16

classified 17-18

declarative, interrogative, im-
perative, and exclamatory . 18

punctuation 19

declarative most common ... 30
essential parts of 31

INDEX

359

PAGE

Sentences, natural and inverted

order in 23

ixarts of, summarized . . . 104-105

simple, defined 106-107

complex, defined 107-108

compound, defined iii

compound, classified . . . iix-112

improper compound 115

elliptical 119

impersonal 208-209

conditional 313-315

Sett sit, distinguished 270

ShaU or will 291,303-305

5^0, constructions I99i2i2

declined 205

gender 205,212-215

Should, classification 272

distinguished from itv)M2<j . 304-305
tense of infinitive with . . 324-325

Siftn of the infinitive 322

Simple sentence, defined . 106-107
Simple subject, defined .... 34
Singular number, defined. . . 172

divided usage 178

personal pronouns . . 198, 203, 205

adjectives 245

verbs 282-285

Sit, set, distinguished 270

Strong conjugation 290

Subject, defined 21

omitted 22, 311

position of 22-23

compound 26-27

simple, distinguished from com-
plete 34

phrase used as 90

clause used as 93

subordinate clause used as . . 109

of verb 185, 199

of infinitive 199.326

impers-cnal 208-209

of passive verb 273-275

Subject substantive 34 n.

Subjective complements,

defined 47

phrases as 91

clauses as 94

case of 185, 199

Subjunctive mood, defined . . 307

form 308

uses . , 30Q-310

tenses 310-31 1

in conditional sentences . 313-314
Subordinate clauses . . . 108-110

conjunctions 344

Substantive, defined 35

Substantive clauses, as subj ects, 93

as complements 94

as appositives 95

Substantive phrases, as subjects,

90, 339

as complements 91

Substitutes, for nouns .... 190

for adjectives 255

foradvsrbs 264-265

PAGE

Suffix 163

use of feminine, to denote gen-
der 170

Superlative def^ree 246

r«acA, takes two substantives . . 79

Tense, defined 288

simple present and past . . 388-290
phrasal tenses, future .... 291

perfect tenses 292

progressive tenses .... 293-295
emphatic, interrogative and neg-
ative 396

summary of tense forms . . . 297

misused forms 298-299

uses of the simple present . 301-302
uses of the present perfect . . 302

shall or will 303-305

tenses of subjunctive . . . 310-3x1

of participles 317

tenses of infinitive 324

Than whom 235

That, demonstrative . . 322-223, 245

relative 832-233

The, adverb 254

The, article 132, 244, 250

Thee, distinguished from you . . 200

case 203

constructions 203-204

Their, theirs, case 20s

construction 212

as genderless plurals 217

Them, case 205

constructions 212

as genderless plural 217

Themselves 219-221

There, expletive ■ . 263

Thsse 222-223, 245

They, declined 205

constructions 212

as genderless plural 217

Thine, case 203-204

distinguished from yours . . . 204

construction 213

This 222-223, 245

Those 222-223, 245

Thou, constructions 199

declined 203

distinguished from you . . 203-204

Though, verbs with 315

Thought, a, defined 15

Thy, constructions 199

case 203-204

distinguished from your . 203-204

Thyself 220

To before the root infinitive, 157,

158, 321-322
Transitive verbs, 48, 366-267, 268-270

Unless, verbs with 315

Us, case 198

36o

INDEX

PAGE

Ust constructions i99

Used to 297

Verbals X54

Verb phrases, separated ... 33, 43

defined 39

interrogative, negative, and

emphatic 39-40, 296

future 291

perfect 292

progressive 293-294

Verbs, defined 34, ^66

of action, being, or state . . 36-37
of complete predication. . 45.267
of incomplete predication, 45-46. 267

transitive, defined 48

two or more complements to

one verb 55-56

two or more verbs with one

complement $6

infinitives 154,157,320-329

participles . . , iS4-i5St 316-318
transitive and intransitive . 266-2 7c

auxiliary 272

notional 272

active and passive .... 273-281
number and person . . . 282-287

tense 288-306

regular and irregular . . . 289-290

principal parts 297-299

mood 306-316

conjugation 329-334

how to parse 334-335

list of irregular 347-352

Vocatives, defined 99-100

- punctuation xoo

case of 185-199

Voice 273-275

Wait for, wait on ....... 342

T»>, declined 198

editorial or majestic X99

constructions Z99

Weak conjugation 289

What, interrogative .... 223-224

PAGE

What, relative 233

Whatever 239-240

Whatsoever 239-240

Whether 224

Whether — or 344

Which, interrogative .... 223-224

relative 232-233

of which OT whose 237

Whichever 239-240

Who, interrogative 223-224

relative 231-232

Whoever 239-240

Whom, interrogative . . 10, 223-225

relative 232

Whomever 240

Whose, interrogative .... 223-224

relative 231-232,235

whose or of which 237

Whose else 183

Whosoever 239-240

Will or shall 291, 303-305

Words, defined i

number of English 5

British 5

Latin, found in Britain .... 6

missionary 6

Danish 6-7

Norman-French 7

from Latin books 7

imported 8

new, for new things 8

classified according to function, 125

compound 164

Would 272,304-305

Ye, classified 196

case . . . 200

constructions 203-204

Yes 257

You, classified 195

case 300

declined 203

number 204

Your, yours, classified 195

case 203

construction 212

Yours^ft yourselves •• 196,219-221

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